LIPPINCOTT'Slil 
FARM  MANUALS 


M 


PRODUCTIVE 

SMALL  FRUIT 

CULTURE 

F.C.  SEARS,  M.S. 


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Pioxil}  (Carolina  ^init  College 

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NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 


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"The  first  farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  historic 
nobility  rests  on  possession  and  use  of  land." 

— Embrson. 


LIPPINCOTT'S 

FARM  MANUALS 

EDITED  BY 

KARY  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF   AGRICULTURE,  KNAPP    SCHOOL   OF   COUNTRY    LIFE,    GEORGE    PEABODY 

COLLEGE    FOR   TEACHERS,    NASHVILLE,  TENNESSEE;    AUTHOR   OF 

PRODUCTIVE   FARMING,    ETC. 


PRODUCTIVE  SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE 

By  FRED  COLEMAN  SEARS,  M.S.  (Kansas  Statf  Agricultural  College; 

PROFESSOR  OF   POMOLOGY,    MASSACHUSETTS  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


LippiNCOTT's  Farm  Manuals 

Edited  by  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D.,  Knapp  School  of  Country  Life,  Nashville,  TeuQ. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  keep  these  standard  te.xts  up-to-date,  and 
new  editions  are  published  and  revisions  made  whenever  necessary. 


PRODUCTIVE  SWINE  HUSBANDRY 

By  GEORGE  E.  DAY,  B.S.A.     Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCT^IVE  POULTRY  HUSBANDRY 

By  HARRY  R.  LEWIS,  M.Agr.    Fourth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlargea 

PRODUCT'IVE  HORSE  HUSBANDRY 

By  CARL  W.  GAY,  D.V.M.,  B.S.A.     Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTTIVE  ORCHARDING 

By  FRED  C.  SEARS,  M.S.     Second  Edition,  Re%nsed 

PRODUCTIVE  VEGETABLE  GROWING 

By  JOHN  W.  LLOYD.  M.S.A.     Third  Edition  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FEEDING  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

By  F.  W.  WOLL,  Ph.D.,  Third  Edition,  Revised 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 
By  R.  A.  CRAIG.  D.V.M.,  Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  FARM  CROPS 

By  E.  G.  MONTGOMERY.  M.A.     Third  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  BEE  KEEPING 

By  FRANK  C.  PELLETT.     Second  Edition,  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  DAIRYING 

By  R.   M.  WASHBURN,  M.S.A.     Second  Edition,  Revised 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS  AND  USEFUL  BIRDS 

By  F.  L.  WASHBURN,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 
By  WALTER  C.  COFFEY,  M.A. 

PRODUCTIVE  SMALL  FRUIT  CULTURE 
By  FRED  C.  SEARS.  M.S. 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS 

By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR.  M.S. 

LIPPINCOTT'S  COLLEGE  TEXTS 

SOIL  PHYSICS  AND  MANAGEMENT 

By  J.  G.  MOSIER,  B.S..  A.  F.  GUSTAFSON.  M.S. 

F/^M  LIFE  TEXT  SERIES 

APPLIED  ECONOMIC  BOTANY 

By  MELVILLE  T.  COOK.  Ph.D. 
PRODUCTIVE  PLANT  HUSBANDRY 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.     Second  Edition.  Revised 

HORTICULTURE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 

By  KARY  C.  DAVIS.     Second  Edition.  Revised 

PRODUCTIVE  SOILS  (Abridged  Edition) 
By  WILBERT  W.  WEIR,  M.S. 

VOCATIONAL  CHEMISTRY 
By  J.  J.  WILLAMAN 

LABORATORY  MANUALS  AND  NOTEBOOKS 

ON  THE  FOLLOWING  SUBJECTS 

SOILS,  By  J.  F.  EASTMAN  and  K.  C.  DAVIS         POULTRY,  By  H.  R.  LEWIS 

DAIRYING,  By  E.  L.  ANTHONY  FEEDING,  By  F.  W.  WOLL 

FARM  CROPS,  By  F.  W.  LATHROP 


4^     I 


LiPPiNCOTrs  Farm  Manuals 

EDITED  BY  K.  C.  DAVIS,  Ph.D 


PRODUCTIVE  SMALL 
FRUIT  CULTURE 

A  DISCUSSION  OF  THE  GROWING,  HARVEST- 
ING, AND   MARKETING  OF    STRAWBERRIES, 
RASPBERRIES,    BLACKBERRIES,    CURRANTS, 
GOOSEBERRIES  AND  GRAPES 


BY 

FRED  COLEMAN  SEARS,  M.S. 
(Kansas  State  Agricultural  College) 

PROFESSOR  OF   POMOLOGY,    MASSACHUSETTS  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGB 


196  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


"If  vain  our  toil, 
We  ought  to  blame  the  culture,  not  the  soil." 

Pope — Essay  on  Man 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,    1920.    BY   J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT  COMPANV 


PRINTliD    BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 

AT  THE  WASHINGTON  SQUARE  PRESS 

PHILADELPHIA,  U.  S.  A. 


LIBRARY 

&0€k  State  Goi/ege 


To  My  Father 
THOMAS  BARTLETT  SEARS 

WHO    TAUGHT    ME    THE     DETAILS     OF     PRACTICAL     AND     EFFI- 
CIENT   FARMING,    THIS    BOOK  IS  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED 

Fred  Coleman  Sears 


10455 


PREFACE 

The  following  discussions  on  small  fruit  culture  have  been 
drawn  from  many  sources.  They  have  grown  in  part  out  of  my 
experience  in  the  growing  of  these  fruits  in  the  Department  of 
Pomology  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  and  in 
various  other  institutions  where  I  have  had  these  plantations  in 
charge;  they  have  come  partly  from  work  with  college  classes 
where  such  subjects  have  been  under  consideration ;  another  and 
very  important  part  has  been  drawn  from  association  with  the 
practical  fruit  growers  of  the  country,  than  whom  there  are  no 
better  instructors  to  be  found  in  the  world;  and  a  relatively 
small  but  very  important  part  has  been  drawn  from  personal 
experience  in  growing  these  fruits  in  my  own  garden  and  on 
my  own  farm. 

The  discussions  are  oiTered  to  the  fruit-growing  fraternity 
for  what  they  are  worth.  This  may  be  much,  or  little,  or  noth- 
ing, depending  on  the  one  who  consults  the  book.  Two  prin- 
cipal aims  have  been  kept  in  mind  in  the  preparation  of  both  the 
text  and  the  illustrations :  first,  to  have  them  clear  and  concise 
so  that  they  might  be  readily  understood ;  and,  second,  to  include 
only  such  matter  as  had  been  fully  tested  and  had  proved  of 
actual,  practical  value. 

It  is  my  hope  that  two  classes  of  people  in  particular  may 
find  the  book  of  real  value,  viz.,  first,  the  instructor  who  is  con- 
ducting classes  in  small  fruit  culture  (and  possibly  his  stu- 
dents), who  may  find  new  points  of  view  presented  and  perhaps 
old  ones  more  fully  explained ;  and,  second,  the  practical  grower 
who  has  not  yet  mastered  all  the  details  of  the  business,  but  who 
wants  suggestions  on  some  of  the  many  points  which  are  con- 
stantly coming  up  for  decision  on  any  fruit  farm. 

The  practice  work  given  in  the  Appendix  will  suggest  many 
other  lines  of  planting,  pruning,  transplanting,  spraying,  plant 
selection,  inspection,  harvesting,  marketing,  etc. 

I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  all  who  have 


vlii  PREFACE 

helped  in  the  preparation  of  either  the  text  or  the  illustrations. 
These  helpers  have  been  many,  and  they  are  all  gratefully  re- 
membered, though  they  cannot  all  be  personally  mentioned. 

The  illustrations  are  principally  from  photographs  which  I 
have  myself  taken,  generally  for  the  special  purpose  of  using 
them  in  this  book ;  I  am  indebted,  however,  to  Mr.  J.  L.  Stahl, 
of  the  Experiment  Station  at  Puyallup,  Washington,  for  many 
photographs  which  have  been  used  and  for  many  helpful  sug- 
gestions. The  drawings  in  the  book  are  all  made  by  my  sister. 
Miss  Kate  B.  Sears,  of  Lawrence,  Kansas. 

I  am  especially  indebted  to  Mr.  George  M.  Darrow,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  a 
recognized  authority  on  small  fruits,  who  has  read  the  entire 
manuscript  and  offered  many  valuable  suggestions ;  and  lastly 
to  my  editor.  Prof.  K.  C.  Davis,  for  many  suggestions  and 
criticisms  and  much  assistance  in  the  somewhat  trying  details 
of  getting  the  book  into  print. 

Feed  C.  Sears. 
Massachusetts   Agricultural   College,   Amherst. 
January,  1920. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Selection  of  Sites 1 

II.  Implements 8 

III.  Fertilizers 20 

IV.  Companion  Crops 27 

V.  Cover  Crops 32 

VI.  Spraying  Materials  and  Apparatus 39 

VII.  Canning,  Preserving  and  Marketing 46 

VIII.  Strawberry  Soils  and  Their  Preparation 57 

IX.  Strawberry  Varieties  and  Plants 65 

X.  Setting  the  Strawberry  Bed 78 

XI.  Cultivating  and  Fertilizing  Strawberries 94 

XII.  Other  Care  of  the  Strawberry  Bed 110 

XIII.  Diseases,  Insects,  and  Spraying  of  Strawberries 116 

XIV.  Mulching  the  Strawberry  Bed 125 

XV.  Renovating  Old  Strawberry  Beds 136 

XVI.  Harvesting  and  Marketing  Strawberries 144 

XVII.  Sites,  Soils  and  Their  Preparation  for  Raspberries  and 

Blackberries 159 

XVIII.  Establishing  Raspberry  and  Blackberry  Plantations.  .    163 
XIX.  Culture  AND  Fertilizing  OF  Raspberries  AND  Blackberries  173 
XX.  Pruning  and  Training  the  Raspberry  and  Blackberry.    182 
XXI.  Insects  and  Diseases  of  the  Raspberry  and  Blackberry  202 
XXII.  Harvesting  and  Marketing  the  Raspberry  and  Black- 
berry    209 

XXIII.  Sites,  Soils  and  Their  Preparation   for  Currants  and 

Gooseberries 227 

XXIV.  Varieties  and    Propagation   of   Currants  and    Goose- 

berries    232 

XXV.  Establishing  Currant  and  Gooseberry  Plantations  ....  237 
XXVI.  Culture  and  Fertilizing  of  Currants  and  Gooseberries.  242 
XXVII.  Pruning  and  Training  Currants  and   Gooseberries  ....   248 
XXVIII.  Diseases  and  Insects  of  the  Currant  and  Gooseberry.   257 
XXIX.  Harvesting    and     Marketing     Currants     and     Goose- 
berries    265 

XXX.  Sites  and  Soils  for  the  Vineyard 273 

XXXI.  Varieties  of  Grapes 279 

XXXII.  Establishing  the  Vineyard 292 

XXXIII.  Cultivating  and  Fertilizing  the  Vineyard 301 

XXXIV.  Pruning  and  Training  the  Grape 310 

XXXV.  Insects,  Diseases  and  Spraying  of  Grapes 336 

XXXVI.  Harvesting  and  Marketing  Grapes 346 

Appendix 354 


PRODUCTIVE 
SMALL  FRUIT   CULTURE 

CHAPTER  I 
SELECTION  OF  SITES 

Barring  general  neglect  by  the  owner,  no  factor  is  more 
freqnently  responsible  for  the  failure  of  a  small  fruit  plantation 
than  trying  to  grow  it  in  the  wrong  place.  Too  dry  a  soil  cuts 
off  the  yield  of  a  strawberry  crop ;  too  wet  a  soil  causes  winter 
injury  in  the  raspberry  block ;  too  low  and  flat  a  site  leads  to  a 
blighting  of  the  blossoms  of  the  strawberry  patch  in  the  spring, 
or  to  the  loss  of  the  grape  crop  in  the  autumn,  through  frost 
damage ;  too  windy  a  location  dries  out  the  soil  and  injures  the 
crop  of  most  of  the  fruits  under  consideration. 

Since  the  present  treatise  does  not  deal  with  the  desirable 
and  undesirable  points  in  the  oitmers  of  small  fruit  plantations, 
it  seems  best  to  begin  this  general  discussion  with  a  considera- 
tion of  this  second  most  important  factor  in  the  success  of  the 
plantation,  the  site. 

As  ordinarily  sub-divided,  the  following  are  the  features  of 
the  site  or  location  which  ought  to  be  considered : 

The  Slope  of  the  Land. — This  influences  the  plantation 
along  three  different  and  important  lines,  namely,  in  relation  to 
the  sun,  to  winds,  and  to  atm'ospheric  drainage.  If  the  slope  is 
southerly  the  plantation  will  receive  more  heat  from  the  sun, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  desirable.  In  any  fruits  which  are 
not  likely  to  mature  through  lack  of  a  sufficient  number  of  heat 
units  during  the  growing  season,  or  in  case  early  fruit  is  der 
sired  to  catch  the  high  prices  which  may  prevail  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  season,  it  is,  of  course,  very  desirable  to  get  all  the 
heat  possible,  and  a  southern  slope  is  gi*eatly  to  be  preferred.  It 
is  surprising,  too,  how  slight  a  slope  will  help  materially  in  in- 
creasing the  heat,  and  thus  hastening  the  maturity  of  a  crop. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  a  cool  location  is  desired,  as  is  the 

1 


2  SELECTION  OF  SITES 

case  "with  a  number  of  the  fruits  under  discussion,  a  northern 
slope  is  very  desirable,  and  even  a  slight  slope  to  the  south  is  to 
be  avoided  if  possible  (Fig.  1). 

Air  Drainage. — The  slope  is  also  very  important  on  account 
of  its  influence  on  atmospheric  drainage  and  through  that  on  the 
occurrence  of  and  damage  from  frosts  and  freezes.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air,  and  this  leads 
to  currents  of  air  down  the  slope  when  the  wind  does  not  blow 
and  keep  the  temperature  of  the  air  uniform.  On  quiet  nights, 
therefore,  the  cold  air  flows  down  the  slope,  just  as  water  might. 


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1-  ic    I  — One  tj  pe  of  good  country  for  small  fruits      The  higher  lands  ire  admirable  for 
trapes  and  currants  and  the  lower  for  strawberries    raspberries  and  blackberries 

and  settles  on  the  level  land  at  the  bottom,  often  producing  a 
frost  on  these  lower  fields  when  there  is  none  above.  It  is  sur- 
prising, too,  how  slight  a  difference  in  level  will  determine 
whether  a  frost  occurs  or  not.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  corn 
field  or  a  bean  field  with  one  corner  badly  frosted,  while  on  ad- 
joining parts  of  the  field,  not  more  than  five  feet  higher,  no 
frost  has  occurred.  Moreover,  the  greater  the  ten'itory  above  a 
particular  field  from  which  the  cold  air  drains  down  on  that 
field,  the  greater  the  chance  of  frosts  occun-ing  on  that  field, 
since  it  not  only  receives  its  o\\ai  share  of  the  cold  air,  but  that 
from  the  large  area  on  the  slopes  above.    This  accounts  for  the 


WINDBREAKS  3 

fact  that  frosts  are  so  likely  to  occur  on  the  valley  or  bottom 
lands  in  sections  where  there  are  high  hills  and  narrow  valleys. 

'Not  only  is  the  slope  important  in  relation  to  frosts,  but  it 
also  exerts  a  decided  influence  on  the  more  severe  temperatures 
which  occur  during  the  winter.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in 
peach  growing,  for  example,  the  fruit  buds  may  come  through 
the  winter  unharmed  on  a  block  of  orchard  on  elevated  land, 
while  in  a  nearby  block  on  low  land  every  fruit  bud  may  b© 
killed,  due  to  the  much  lower  temperatures  reached  on  these 
lower  levels  from  the  settling  of  the  cold  air.  In  the  same  way 
any  of  the  small  fruits  which  are  liable  to  winter  injury  may  be 
severely  injured  in  one  location  and  escape  entirely  in  an 
adjoining  field,  the  difference  due  altogether  to  this  atmos- 
pheric drainage. 

Exposure  to  Winds. — A  third  phase  of  the  slope  question, 
though  it  is  a  much  less  important  one  with  the  fruits  under 
discussion  than  with  orchard  fruits,  is  the  question  of  winds. 
This  is  less  important  with  small  fruits  than  the  other  two 
phases  already  discussed.  They  are  likely  to  damage  a  small 
fruit  plantation  principally  in  two  ways,  by  drying  out  the  soil 
during  the  gTowing  season,  and  by  increasing  winter  injury 
through  the  drying  out  of  the  canes  during  periods  of  severe 
cold  in  winter.  In  those  sections  where  dry  weather  is  likely  to 
prevail  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  cause  damage  one  ought,  there- 
fore, to  select  slopes  which  are  not  towards  the  prevailing  sum- 
mer winds ;  while  in  sections  where  winter  injury  is  to  be  feared 
northern  and  northwestern  slopes  should  be  avoided.  Damage 
to  the  fruit  on  the  vines  is  a  less  serious  matter  with  these  fniits 
than  with  the  orchard  fniits,  but  even  this  phase  of  the  ques- 
tion desen^es  consideration,  especially  in  sections  where  severe 
winds  are  likely  to  prevail  during  the  growing  season.  The 
blossoms  are  likely  to  be  injured,  or  the  fruit  itself  damaged,  or 
the  young  and  tender  foliage  may  be  hurt  by  strong  and  espe- 
cially by  dry  winds. 

Windbreaks. — While  this  question  of  the  influence  of  slope 
on  wind  injury  is  under  discussion,  it  may  be  well  to  add  here 
that  in  those  sections  where  winds  are  strong  and  are  likely  to 


4  SELECTION  OF  SITES 

do  damage  to  the  plantation,  windbreaks  are  very  desirable,  even 
though  a  site  has  been  selected  on  land  which  slopes  away  from 
the  wind.  For  this  purpose,  one  should,  of  course,  select  trees 
which  first  of  all  will  be  successful  in  his  section,  but  also  those 
trees  which  do  not  harbor  either  insect  or  fungous  enemies 
which  are  likely  to  infest  the  plantation.  Just  at  the  present 
time  the  white  pine  would  be  excluded  from  all  windbreaks  for 
currant  or  gooseberry  plantations,  because  of  the  blister  rust 
which  passes  a  part  of  its  life  cycle  on  the  white  pine,  and  a  part 
on  the  currant  or  gooseberry.  All  things  considered,  the  hem- 
lock and  the  spruces  among  evergTeens,  and  the  maples  among 
deciduous  trees,  are  probably  the  most  generally  satisfactory 
for  windbreaks. 

Proper  Soil. — The  second  general  factor  of  the  site  question 
is  the  soil,  and  an  extremely  important  factor  it  is,  too.  One 
ought  to  study  the  local  soils  and  to  understand  as  fully  as  pos- 
sible the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  different  types 
of  soil,  before  locating  the  plantation.  Experts  classify  soils 
roughly  as  sands,  silts  and  clays,  according  to  the  fineness 
and  composition  of  the  soil  particles.  These  three  general 
classes,  of  course,  shade  gradually  into  each  other,  and  are  al- 
ways more  or  less  mixed,  so  that  we  have  a  wide  range  of 
types  varying  slightly  from  each  other  in  their  characters  and 
in  their  effects  on  crops. 

Sandy  Soils. — It  is  not  the  province  of  the  present  treatise 
to  go  exhaustively  into  this  question,  but  it  may  be  said  briefly 
that  sandy  soils  possess  the  great  advantage  of  being  warm  and 
consequently  starting  their  plants  into  growth  early  in  the 
spring.  They  are  also  easy  to  work  and  are  not  easily  dam- 
aged in  texture.  And  they  respond  very  quickly  to  any  treat- 
ment with  fertilizers.  On  the  other  hand,  they  quickly  lose 
their  humus  content,  and  suffer  thereby  from  the  effects  of 
drought.  They  would,  therefore,  be  especially  valuable  where 
earliness  and  quick  grovd;h  are  desired,  but  should  not  be  used, 
or  if  used  should  be  handled  with  especial  care  in  cultivation 
and  in  keeping  up  the  humus  content,  where  an  abundance  of 
soil  moisture  is  important. 


A  TEMPERATURE  FACTOR  5 

Soils  Rich  in  Clay. — Clays,  on  the  other  hand,  are  nearly  at 
the  opposite  extreme  in  most  of  the  characters  noted.  They  are 
very  retentive  of  moistnre,  of  fertilizers,  and  of  humus,  but  are 
comparatively  cold,  and  their  texture  is  easily  damaged  if  they 
are  worked  when  too  wet.  And  because  they  dry  out  so  slowly, 
there  is  always  an  added  temptation  to  get  on  them  for  plow- 
ing or  cultivating  before  they  are  really  in  the  best  condition  for 
the  work.  It  requires  a  good  deal  of  fortitude  to  sit  idly  by  and 
see  the  neighbors  getting  their  season's  work  started  while  one 
waits  for  his  own  heavier  soil  to  get  into  proper  condition 
for  working. 

A  Temperature  Factor. — One  reason  for  this  dillerence  in 
the  rate  of  warming  up  in  clays  and  sands  is  the  water  content, 
and  in  this  connection  the  following  quotation  from  Prof.  F.  H. 
King's  book,  "  The  Soil,"  is  of  interest : 

"  There  is  no  one  cause  so  effective  in  holding  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  soil  do^\^l  as  the  water  which  it  contains,  and  which 
may  be  evaporating  from  its  surface.  This  is  because  more 
work  must  be  done  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of 
water  through  one  degTee  than  of  almost  any  other  substance. 
Thus,  while  100  units  of  heat  must  be  used  to  raise  100  pounds 
of  water  from  32  to  33  degrees  F.,  only  19.09  units,  according 
to  R.  Ulrich,  are  required  to  warm  the  same  weight  of  dry  sand, 
and  22.43  units  an  equal  weight  of  pure  clay,  through  the  same 
range  of  temperature.  To  raise  the  temperature  of  100  pounds 
of  dry  humus  through  one  degi-ee,  it  is  necessary  to  give  to 
it  44.31  heat  units,  while  100  pounds  of  carbonate  of  lime 
require  20.82  units. 

"  From  these  figures  it  is  evident  that  when  the  sun  imparts 
equivalent  amounts  of  heat  to  equal  amounts  of  sand,  clay, 
humus,  and  water,  the  sand  will  be  the  warmest,  while  the  water 
will  be  the  coldest.  To  make  the  differences  definite,  suppose 
the  water  has  its  temperature  raised  ten  degrees,  then  the  same 
amount  of  heat  entering  an  equal  weight  of  humus  will  make  it 
22.06  degrees  warmer,  clay  44.58  degrees,  and  sand  52.38  de- 
grees wanner.  But  while  the  temperatures  of  these  soils  would 
stand  in  the  relation  of  the  figures  here  given  when  they  aj*e 


6  SELECTION  OF  SITES 

drj'-,  it  is  not  true  that  under  Held  conditions  such  large  differ- 
ences of  temperature  would  be  observed,  because  there  are  other 
factors  which  modify  the  effect  of  differences  of  specific  heat, 
whose  influence  alone  we  have  thus  far  considered." 

Some  Intermediate  Soils. — Heavy  clays  ought  probably  to 
be  avoided  for  all  of  the  fruits  under  consideration;  but  the 
lighter  types,  such  as  light  clay  loams,  or  medium  clay  loams,  if 
handled  properly  and  kept  well  supplied  with  humus,  are  very 
satisfactory  for  those  fruits  where  earliness  is  not  imperative 
and  where  an  abundance  of  moisture  is  important. 

The  silty  soils  are  intermediate  in  characters  between  the 
sands  and  clays,  and  are  very  satisfactory  types  for  most  of  the 
small  fruits. 

The  Humus  Supply. — Before  leaving  this  matter  of  soils, 
some  further  emphasis  ought  to  be  placed  upon  the  question  of 
keeping  up  an  abundant  supply  of  humus  in  all  soils  used  for 
small  fruits.  With  the  possible  exception  of  the  grape,  few 
crops  suffer  more  from  a  lack  of  humus  than  those  under  dis- 
cussion in  this  treatise.  This,  of  course,  is  largely  because  few 
crops  are  more  dependent  on  soil  moisture,  but  besides  being 
extremely  important  in  holding  a  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil, 
humus  improves  the  physical  condition  of  all  soils,  but  especially 
the  two  extremes,  clays  and  sands,  and  it  adds  materially  to  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  An  especial  effort  ought  therefore  to  be 
made  to  supply  soils  used  for  the  small  fruits  with  humus 
through  the  use  of  barnyard  manure,  if  that  can  be  had,  and 
also  by  growing  and  plowing  under  just  as  much  vegetable 
material  as  possible.  It  is  even  considered  wise  with  some  of 
the  fruits  under  consideration  to  devote  an  entire  season  to 
growing  and  plowing  under  successive  crops  of  one  kind  and 
another  in  order  to  make  sure  of  a  high  humus  content  in  the  soil. 

Water  Drainage. — A  last  factor  of  the  site  question,  though 
one  very  intimately  connected  with  some  aspects  of  it  wdiich 
have  already  been  discussed,  is  the  question  of  water  drainage. 
There  ought  always  to  be  slope  enough  to  carry  off  all  surface 
water,  for  none  of  the  small  fruits  will  thrive  where  there  is  a 
likelihood  of  water  standing  for  any  length  of  time.     And  the 


QUESTIONS  7 

subsoil  must  be  light  enough  naturally,  or  must  be  drained  arti- 
ficially, so  that  the  soil  will  not  be  too  wet.  A  wet  soil  is 
always  relatively  cold,  and  there  is  almost  certain  to  be  more 
winter  injury  to  plants  gTowing  on  it  than  will  be  found  on 
better-drained  and  drier  soils.  On  the  other  hand,  too  much 
drainage,  either  surface  or  sub-drainage,  ought  to  be  avoided. 
The  former  causes  not  only  the  loss  of  soil  fertility  and  even  the 
soil  itself,  but  also  the  loss  of  needed  soil  moisture ;  while  if  the 
sub-drainage  is  too  great,  it  produces  too  dry  a  soil. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  Avays  does  the  slope  of  the  land  affect  a  small  fruit  plantation? 

2.  Have  you  ever  seen  bad  effects  from  atmospheric  draina<je?     Describe 

them. 

3.  What  are  the  worst  A\inds  in  your  section?     Have  you  seen  examples 

of  the  injurious  effects  of  winds? 

4.  What  types  of  soil  do  you  have  on  your  farm?    Which  do  you  like  best? 

5.  What  is  humus?     How  does  it  affect  soils? 

6.  How  are  clay  soils  better  than  sandy  soils? 

7.  In  what  ways  are  they  more  difficult  to  handle? 

8.  How  is  the  temperature  of  the  soil  influenced? 

9.  Have  you  ever  seen  bad  effects  from  poor  drainage  in  the  soil? 


CHAPTER  II 

IMPLEMENTS 

It  rarely  happens  that  it  is  necessary  to  buy  special  imple- 
ments for  nse  in  the  small  frnit  plantations  on  the  average  farm. 
If  small  fniit  growing  is  the  only,  or  the  principal,  line  of  fann- 
ing, then  the  equipment  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  different  from 
that  on  the  general  farm,  but  it  is  possible  to  get  along  very  well 
with  only  those  implements  in  common  use. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  often  possible  to  slightly  vary  the 
implement  bought,  if  one  is  to  use  it  in  the  small  fruits,  and  in 
any  event  it  seems  worth  while  to  discuss  briefly,  in  this  present 
chapter,  the  general  question  of  implements,  with  especial  ref- 
erence to  those  needed  for  work  on  the  small  fruit  plantation. 

Plows. — Beginning  with  plows,  two  or  perhaps  three  types 
will  be  found  useful.  For  the  work  of  plowing  in  preparation 
for  the  plantation  almost  any  good  plow  will  be  satisfactory,  but 
since  it  is  desirable  to  plow  deeply  and  to  pulverize  all  the  soil 
which  is  turned  over,  a  large  plow  with  an  abrnpt  mold-board 
will  do  the  work  most  satisfactorily.  A  twelve-inch  plow  is  as 
small  as  will  do  the  work  in  the  most  acceptable  manner.  This 
plow  may  be  either  an  ordinary  walking  plow,  or  a  double  sulky, 
or  a  side  hill  plow,  without  making  any  great  difference  in  the 
work  done,  except  that  the  last  two  named  will  leave  no  dead 
furrows  nor  back  furrows,  and  are  to  be  preferred  somewhat 
on  that  account. 

For  fitting  the  land  after  the  plantations  have  been  estah- 
lished,  the  problem  is  quite  different.  One  then  wants  an  im- 
plement that  will  get  over  the  plantation  quickly,  getting  close 
to  the  rows  and  not  stirring  the  soil  very  deeply,  and  if  a  plow 
is  to  be  used,  nothing  is  better  than  the  little  three-bottom-gang 
plow  shown  in  figure  2.  It  will  cover  a  width  of  twenty-four 
inches,  will  easily  go  to  a  depth  of  five  inches  (which  is  deeper 
than  one  generally  cares  to  go  in  this  work),  and  will  work 
8 


DISK  HARROWS 


9 


very  close  to  the  rows.    In  addition,  the  draft  is  very  light,  being 
no  more,  certainly,  than  the  average  fonrteen-inch  walking  plow. 
Harrows. — Of  harrows  there  is  an  endless  variety,  adapted 
to  every  possible  condition  that  can  arise. 


Fig.   2. — A  i..i\L-,;.uig  plow.    Three  eight-inch  plows  with  a  draft  mot  greater  than  a  single 
14-inch   plow.      A  splendid  implement  for  work  among  small   fruits. 


S 


i^M' 


\        One  of  the  best  iniplemcntb  ti  follow  the  plow 
i>  s  be  run  in  the  same  direction  as  the  plowing 


Disk  Harrows. — In  farming  operations  the  disk  types  come 
first  and  are  among  the  most  indispensable  of  all  implements. 
The  one  shown  in  figure  8  is  the  cnt-away  type,  with  the  edges 
of  the  disks  cut  into  notches.     This  is  supposed  to  make  the 


10 


IMPLEMENTS 


implement  cut  more  deeply  into  the  soil  than  the  other  type 
which  has  smooth  edges  to  the  disks;  either  one,  however,  is 
very  effective,  whether  it  is  used  following  the  plow  as  shown,  or 
as  a  substitute  for  the  plow,  as  is  often  done  in  small  fruit  plan- 
tations in  the  spring  fitting  of  the  land.  When  this  implement 
is  used  to  follow  the  plow  it  should  always  be  first  run  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  plow,  as  there  is  then  much  less  tendency 
to  turn  back  the  furrow  slice  and  expose  the  sods  or  trash  that 
may  have  been  plowed  under. 


-Smoothing    harrow.      Excellent    to    follow    a    disk   or    spring-tooth    harrow   in 
fitting  land. 


It  is  an  admirable  implement  for  stirring  the  soil  deeply  at 
any  time  and  will  be  found  especially  useful  when  in  the  rush  of 
work  the  weeds  have  made  such  a  start  that  other  harrows  and 
cultivators  will  not  handle  them. 

Spring-tooth  Harrow. — Xext  to  the  disk,  both  in  its  capacity 
to  stir  things  up,  and  in  the  sequence  of  fitting  the  land,  stands 
the  spring-tooth  harrow,  which  is  an  admirable  implement.  Its 
especial  value  lies  in  its  tendency  to  dig  dovm  into  the  soil  and 
stir  it  thoroughly,  loosening  it  to  a  considerable  depth.  Its 
weakness  lies  in  the  fact  that  this  very  type  of  work  tends  to 
pull  out  of  the  soil  any  trash  or  sods,  and  leave  them  on  the  sur- 
face. It  ought,  therefore,  to  be  used  with  judg-ment  and  not  put 
onto  land  which  is  very  trashy  or  soddy  until  the  soil  has  been 


THE  ACME  HARROW 


11 


so  worked  down  after  plowing  that  the  danger  of  pulling  out 
refuse  material  is  relatively  small. 

Smoothing  Harrows. — Following  the  spring-tooth  harrow, 
we  have  the  spike-toothed  smoothing  harrow  shown  in  figure  4. 
The  name  indicates  its  effect.  Some  types  have  a  lever  by  the 
use  of  which  the  teeth  can  be  set  at  any  angle  desired.  The  one 
shown  is  a  somewhat  older  type  which  has  slanting  teeth  when 


Fig.  5- — Acme  harrow.    Anexcellent  finishing  implement  where  tl 


irc  no  stones  nor  sods. 


attached  as  shown.  It  has  perpendicular  teeth  when  the  sections 
are  attached  to  the  evener  by  the  other  end.  It  is  one  of  the 
oldest  types  of  harrows,  is  found  on  almost  every  farm,  and  is 
very  efficient  when  conditions  are  right.  It  will  not  do  good 
work  where  there  is  much  trash,  or  where  the  weeds  are  at 
all  large. 

The  Acme  harrow  shown  in  figure  5  will  admit  of  still  less 
trash  and  weeds  and  yet  do  good  work.  But  when  conditions  are 
favorable,  with  no  trash  and  very  small  weeds,  it  does  most  ex- 
cellent work.  Its  action  is  a  combination  of  cutting  and  crush- 
ing, the  teeth  starting  with  the  broad  dimension  in  a  horizontal 
position,  which  crushes  the  clods,  and  gradually  turning  so  as  to 
assume  a  vertical  position  which  gives  them  a  cutting  effect. 


12  IMPLEMENTS 

The  Meeker  harrow  shown  iu  figure  G  is  a  special  type  used 
most  frequently  by  market  gardeners.  It  consists,  as  may  be 
seen,  of  two  double  gangs  of  flat,  sharp-edged  disks,  which  chop 
up  the  soil,  at  the  same  time  leveling  it  down.  While  it  will 
not  pay,  probably,  to  buy  one  especially  for  the  small  fruit  plan- 
tations unless  they  form  a  very  important  part  of  the  farm  woi'k, 
yet  it  is  a  most  effective  implement  for  putting  the  finishing 
touches  on  a  block  of  land  that  is  being  prepared  for  setting. 

Brush  Harrows. — The  last  type  of  harrow  to  be  included  in 
I  his  discussion  is  the  brush  harrow  shown  in  fisnire  7.     This  is  a 


■v  with  tw^ 
.•uttiiiL;   ui 


home-made  affair,  but  none  the  less  useful,  and  considerably  less 
expensive  on  that  account.  It  is  made  by  boring  holes  with  an 
auger  (preferably  a  two-inch  bit)  into  a  plank  about  eight  feet 
long  and  six  inches  wide  by  two  or  three  inches  in  thickness. 
Brush  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  length  is  then  cut,  and  the  butt 
of  each  sapling  is  smoothed  down  so  as  to  fit  into  the  hole  in  the 
planlc.  It  is  then  driven  in  tightly  and  nailed  in  place  with  one 
or  two  wire  nails.  The  double-tree  is  attached  to  this  plank  by  a 
short  chain.  The  plank  itself  levels  down  any  irregularities 
that  there  may  be  in  the  surface,  and  then  the  brush,  following, 
assists  in  this  leveling  process,  pulverizes  the  surface  soil,  rolls 
over  and  over  any  sods  which  may  be  on  the  surface  and  thor- 
oughly works  them  up.  As  a  finisher  it  is  certainly  a  most 
excellent  implement. 


FLANKER 


13 


Flanker. — Another  home-made  implement  which  is  very  use- 
ful and  quite  inexpensive  is  the  planker,  or  clod-crusher,  shown 
in  figure  8.    Its  construction  is  easily  seen  from  the  illustration. 


Fig.    7.  — Brush  harr-iv.     A 


ti.Jii    of    the    la 


the  prepara- 


FlG.  8. — A  planker  or  cind 


■rusher.     A  hnme-mode  implement  thf 
block  of  land  before  setting. 


Three  or  four  planks  are  used,  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide  and  the 
desired  length,  usually  seven  or  eight  feet.  These  are  lapped  to- 
gether shingle  fashion,  as  shown,  and  nailed  in  place  with  heavy 
wire  nails  where  each  plank  meets  the  one  behind  it.  Additional 
strength  is  given  by  the  cross-Dier^pg  which  are  nailed  or  bolted 


14 


IMPLEMENTS 


in  place.  An  Improvement  on  the  one  shown  can  be  made  by 
notching  the  cross-pieces  to  iit  the  planks  and  bolting  them  in 
place.     The  effect  of  the  planker  on  the  soil  is  three-fold :  first, 


Fig.  9. — V-shaped  cultivator  with  five  rather  large  teeth  or  shovels.      This  type  of  culti- 
vator is  especially  valuable  where  the  weeds  have  gotten  a  start  in  the  plantation. 


Fig.    10. — V-shaped  cultivator  with  spike  teeth.     This  is  an  admirable  implement  where  soil 
conditions  are  good  and  there  are  no  large  weeds  in  the  plantation. 

it  levels  the  surface ;  second,  it  breaks  up  the  clods ;  and  third, 
it  compacts  the  soil.  In  the  writer's  opinion,  it  is  usually  to  be 
preferred  to  a  roller,  since  it  has  a  much  greater  tendency  to 


CULTIVATORS 


16 


move  the  soil  from  high  spots  into  low  ones,  and  its  action  is  to 
grind  up  the  clods  instead  of  merely  pressing  them  into  the  soil. 
It  leaves  a  light  mnlch  over  much  of  the  surface. 

Cultivators. — Tuniing  now  to  various  kinds  of  cultivators, 
the  ones  in  most  common  use  in  small  fruit  plantations  are  the 
one-horse,  V-shaped  types  shown  in  figures  9  and  10.  To  be 
really  well  equipped,  there  should  be  at  least  two  kinds  of 
these  on  the  place ;  one  with  large  shovels  for  larger  weeds  or 
rougher  conditions  of  soil,  and  one  with  small,  spike  teeth  for 


jry  useful  inifilr 


ncnt  for  work 
jthur  fruits. 


maintaining  a  shallow  mnlch  when  conditions  of  soil  and  weeds 
are  more  favorable. 

In  the  few  cases  where  the  rows  are  far  enough  apart  to 
admit  of  the  use  of  two-horse  cultivators  some  kind  of  spring- 
tooth  implement  will  generally  be  best. 

A  special  type  of  cultivator  is  the  grape  hoe  sho^vn  in 
figure  11.  It  is  intended  for  use  close  to  the  row,  either  by  the 
side  of  or  between  the  plants,  and  its  use  will,  to  a  very  large 
extent,  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  hand  labor.  It  has  two 
attachments,  one  a  curved  steel  affair,  somewhat  like  the  mold- 
board  of  a  plow  which  is  desig-ned  for  use  under  conditions  where 
a  plow  would  be  desirable;  that  is,  in  the  spring  to  finish  out 


16 


IMPLEMENTS 


what  the  plow  cannot  reach  along  the  row,  or  later  on  if  the 
weeds  get  too  mnch  start.  The  second  attachment  is  that  showTi 
in  figure  11,  a  number  of  spring  teeth  for  cultivation  close  to 
the  plants. 

Two  types  of  fertilizer  sowers  are  likely  to  be  needed.  One 
is  the  horse-drawn  implement  shown  in  figure  12,  which  will  be 
useful  in  applying  fertilizer  before  the  plantation  is  set,  in  case 
this  is  considered  best,  or  for  use  among  the  bush  fruits  or  in 
vineyards  where  the  rows  are  far  enough  apart  to  admit  it.    The 


Fig.   12. — Applying  lime  with  a  horse-drawn  fertilizer  sower.     An  excellent  machine  for  use 
on  the  land  before  the  plantation  is  set. 

other  type  is  the  hand  or  man-power  distributor  shown  in 
figure  13,  which  is  particularly  valuable  with  strawberries,  but 
may  be  used  with  many  of  the  other  small  fruits.  Since  these 
fruits  are  likely  to  be  highly  fertilized  some  expeditions  method 
of  applying  the  material  is  very  desirable. 

Hoes. — It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  close  this  discussion  of 
implements  with  a  word  on  hand  hoes,  since  they  are  sure  to  be 
used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  most  of  the  plantations 
under  consideration. 

Two  types  will  be  found  especially  valuable  for  small  fruits. 
One  is  the  broad,  shallow  type  of  the  ordinary  hoe  shown  second 


A  GOOD  FILE 


17 


from  the  left  in  figure  14.     This  is  for  use  where  the  weeds  are 


large 


>h  to  need  cutting  off,  and  is  greatly  preferred  to  the 


narrow  and  deep  type  shown  at  the  extreme  right,  because  it 
covers  more  ground,  and  gives  a  shallower  mulch,  while  being 
just  as  effective  in  cutting  weeds. 

The  second  type  of  hoe  that  will  be  found  useful  is  that 
shown  second  from  the  right  in  figure  1-i.     As  will  be  seen,  it 


*a-" 


■r"-5-:-^  i 


S^iM^iki.'    -'^ 


Fig     13—-^   hand  fertilizer  di^tiibulur        D  L  i     li        ittLred   by 

moving  the  tubcb 

has  a  divided  blade,  being  really  a  narrow  rake  with  wide,  flat 
teeth.  Its  especial  advantage  is  the  ease  with  which  the  work  of 
hoeing  can  be  done.  To  one  who  has  never  used  it  the  difi^erence 
will  certainly  be  surprising,  and  it  is  just  as  effective  as  an 
ordinary  hoe  unless  there  are  weeds  of  some  size.  For  the  man 
who  keeps  ahead  of  his  work  it  is  certainly  a  labor-saver. 

A  Good  File. — With  any  hoe,  but  more  especially  with  the 
ordinary  type,  a  regnlar  part  of  the  operator's  equipment  ought 
2 


18 


IMPLEMENTS 


Fig.  14. — Types  of  hand  hoes.    The  one  at  the  extreme  left  is  especially  useful  in 
working  among  plants  in  a  renovated  strawberry  bed.     Two  central  ones  are  the  most 

generally  useful. 


*IG.  IS. — A  market  truck  witii  special  closed  body  tor  transporting  berries.    It  will  carry  one 
crate  or  one  hundred  in  equally  good  condition. 


QUESTIONS  19 

to  be  a  good  file.  Few  people  realize  what  a  difference  there  is 
in  the  energy  required  to  propel  a  sharp  hoe  and  that  necessary 
to  rim  one  with  an  edge  like  a  board. 

Auto  Truck. — While  not  strictly  an  implement,  some  type 
of  auto  truck  will  be  found  of  great  value  for  markets  within  a 
distance  of  ten  or  even  twenty  miles,  and  may  be  used  on  much 
longer  hauls.  The  one  shown  in  figure  15  was  designed  espe- 
cially for  delivering  strawberries  in  markets  from  four  to  fifteen 
miles  distant. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  kinds  of  plows  have  you  seen  used?    Wha^^  kinds  are  most  common 

in  your  section? 

2.  What  do  you  think  is  the  hest  type  of  plow? 

3.  Describe  the  disk  harrow  and  its  effect  on  the  soil. 

4.  How  many  types  of  implements  have  you  seen  with  the  kind  of  tooth 

known  as  "  spring  teeth  "  ? 

5.  What  is  the  effect  of  this  kind  of  implement  on,  the  soil  ? 

6.  Describe  the  smoothing  harrow. 

7.  The  Acme  harrow. 

8.  Did  you   ever   see   a   Meeker  harrow   in  use?      What  is    its  effect  on 

the  soil  ? 

9.  Did   you   ever    see   a   bush    harrow    in   use?      Do    you    think    it    is    a 

good  implement? 

10.  Describe  the  planker  and  its  effect  on  the  soil. 

11.  What  is  a  grape  hoe? 

12.  What  kinds  of  cultivators  have  you  seen  in  use? 

13.  Describe  a  fertilizer  sower. 

14.  What  kinds   of  hand  hoes  have  you  seen  used?     What  kind  do  you 

think  best? 


CHAPTER  III 
FERTILIZERS 

The  practice  of  using  commercial  fertilizers  in  farming  has 
nndergone  a  great  development  in  the  past  twenty-five  years. 
In  sections  which  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  used  no  chemical 
fertilizers  whatever,  and  on  soils  which  were  then  considered  to 
possess  inexhaustible  fertility,  the  practice  of  supplementing  the 
plant  food  in  the  soil  and  that  available  from  bam  manure  with 
various  types  and  quantities  of  chemicals  is  now  a  regular  and 
well-established  one. 

The  small  fruit  industry  has  shared  in  this  change,  and 
while  we  still  find  sections  where  little  or  no  special  fertilizer 
is  used,  yet  in  most  sections  and  with  most  of  these  fruits  the 
fertilizer  problem  has  become  an  important  one,  and,  as  a  rule, 
large  quantities  are  used. 

It  seems  worth  while,  therefore,  to  present  in  this  general 
discussion  a  brief  statement  of  the  fertilizer  problem,  of  the 
effects  of  different  plant  foods,  and  of  the  most  common  forms  of 
fertilizers  in  use  among  small  fruit  growers. 

Shall  We  Fertilize? — The  general  question  of  whether  fer- 
tilizers ought  to  be  used  on  small  fruit  plantations  or  not  is  in 
much  the  same  phase  of  development  as  it  is  with  other  fruits, 
viz.,  some  authorities  say  "  Yes,"  others  "  ISTo."  Some  growers 
use  fertilizers  heavily  and  others  not  at  all.  Doubtless  this 
variation  in  opinion  and  practice  is  due  in  considerable  part  to 
differences  in  soil  and  climate,  but  also  to  differences  in  prun- 
ing and  other  care,  and  perhaps  still  more  to  a  difference  in 
knowledge  of  the  case. 

If  fertilizers  are  to  be  used,  which  question  is  discussed  more 
in  detail  in  the  sections  devoted  to  the  special  fruits,  then  one 
ought  to  know  as  much  as  possible  of  the  specific  effects  of  the 
various  fertilizers,  and  to  this  question  we  may  now  turn 
our  attention. 

Needed  Elements. — It  is  a  common  statement,  and  reason- 
20 


EFFECTS  OF  NITROGEN  21 

ably  accurate,  that  of  the  many  chemical  elements  found  in  the 
soil  and  used  by  plants  in  their  growth,  only  three  or  four  are 
ever  likely  to  become  so  depleted  as  to  need  to  be  returned  to  the 
soil.    These  four  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime. 

Effects  of  Nitrogen. — ]^itrogen  is  the  most  easily  lost,  the 
most  popular  and  generally  used  by  growers  of  all  the  plant 
foods,  and  its  effects  are  perhaps  most  pronounced  and  best 
understood.  It  is  usually  stated  that  nitrogen  is  conducive  to 
vegetative  growth  as  distinguished  from  fruit  bearing,  and  it  is 
considered  more  necessary  with  those  plants,  like  hay  or  lettuce, 
where  the  leaves,  and  not  the  fruits  or  seeds,  are  the  parts  used 
as  food.  But  since  a  good  development  of  leaf  surface  is  a  neces- 
sary prere^juisite  to  a  satisfactory  fruit  development,  a  cer- 
tain and  generally  a  liberal  amount  of  nitrogen  fertilizer  is 
needed  in  fruits. 

To  be  a  little  more  specific,  a  generous  supply  of  available 
nitrogen  in  the  soil  will  produce  the  following  effects : 

1.  It  will  give  a  dark  green  color  to  the  leaves.  Even  those 
leaves  which  were  put  out  before  the  nitrogen  was  applied  will 
become  a  deep  shade  of  green  as  soon  as  the  nitrogen  has  had 
time  to  act,  and  this  is  a  very  short  period  with  the  quick-acting 
fonns,  like  nitrate  of  soda,  provided  there  are  rains  to  dissolve 
them  and  wash  them  into  the  soil. 

2.  The  leaves  produced  by  the  plant  which  has  an  abundant 
supply  of  nitrogen  will  be  large,  much  larger  than  where  the 
nitrogen  is  deficient. 

3.  There  will  be  a  rapid  and  abundant  extension  of  the 
branches  on  the  plant. 

4.  The  period  of  gTowi;h  will  be  prolonged,  a  fact  which 
must  be  considered  carefully,  and  an  excess  of  growth  guarded 
against,  if  winter  injury  to  the  canes  is  to  be  avoided. 

5.  The  maturity  of  the  fruit  will  be  retarded. 

6.  The  fniit  will  be  larger  and  softer  in  texture. 

These  are  all  important  effects  and  they  are  sufficiently 
varied  so  that  the  use  of  nitrogen,  and  the  various  forms  of  it, 
ought  to  be  very  carefully  studied  and  even  experimented  with 
by  the  fiiiit  grower,  before  he  uses  them  too  freely. 


22  FERTILIZERS 

Effects  of  Potash, — Potash  is  much  less  generally  used  and 
its  effects  arc  less  marked  and  less  understood.  It  is  known  that 
it  has  an  important  part  in  the  synthesis  or  building  up  of  car- 
bohydrates, such  as  sugar  and  starch,  not  entering  directly  into 
their  composition,  but  its  presence  being  necessary  in  order  that 
they  may  be  built  up  in  the  tissues.  It  plays  a  similar  part  in 
the  formation  of  proteins.  Also  it  is  known  to  enter  into  the 
acids  of  fruits,  to  be  present  in  large  quantities  in  pollen  grains, 
and  to  be  an  important  part  of  the  ash  of  fruits  (showing  that  it 
has  been  freely  used  by  the  plants  in  their  development).  For 
all  of  these  reasons  some  form  of  potash  is  rightly  considered  a 
very  important  plant  food  and  is  generally  included  in  the  fer- 
tilizer formula  applied  to  small  fruit  plantations. 

Effects  of  Phosphoric  Acid. — Phosphoric  acid  is  used  to 
about  the  same  extent  that  potash  is,  so  far  as  the  number  of 
growers  using  it  is  concerned,  and  in  considerably  larger  amounts 
by  the  individual  growers.  It  is  credited  with  controlling  the 
growth  of  plants,  checking  the  tendency  to  undue  and  prolonged 
growth,  and  is  therefore  popular  where  winter  injury  is  likely  to 
occur.  It  is  also  important  in  the  development  of  the  seed  and, 
in  fact,  in  any  cell  gi'owth.  Since  seed  development  is  very 
closely  associated  with  fruit  development  this  side  of  the 
question  is  doubtless  of  importance  even  though  we  consider 
the  seed  a  negligible  and  even  an  objectionable  part  of  the  fruit. 

Effects  of  Lime. — Lime  is  generally  included  in  the  sub- 
stances applied  to  the  soil  more  as  an  amendment  (to  correct 
acidity  or  on  account  of  its  effect  on  the  physical  character  of 
the  soil )  than  because  it  is  thought  to  be  needed  as  a  direct  plant 
food.  But  it  is  generally  considered  by  scientific  investigators 
to  assist  in  the  formation  of  cell  walls,  to  be  necessary,  therefore, 
for  a  good  leaf  development  and  to  assist  in  the  transportation 
of  starch  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another.  It  also  forms 
an  important  part  of  the  ash  of  plants,  showing  that  it  has  been 
used  abundantly. 

Turning  now  to  specific  forms  of  fertilizers  we  have  the 
following  that  are  in  common  use : 

Nitrate  of  Soda. — Among  nitrogenous  fertilizers  nitrate  of 


ACID  PHOSPHATE  23 

soda  is  by  far  the  most  popular.  Its  most  conspicuous  char- 
acteristic is  the  rapidity  with  which  it  becomes  available.  Fruit 
plants  to  which  it  is  applied  will  show  a  change  in  the  color  of 
their  leaves  within  a  week  and  will  often  show  a  decided  im- 
provement in  gi'owth  within  two  weeks  provided  the  nitrate  is 
cultivated  into  the  soil  so  that  it  can  come  in  contact  with  soil 
moisture  and  so  dissolve,  or  provided  there  is  rain  to  dissolve  it 
and  carry  it  into  the  soil.  This  rapidity  of  action  has  its  good 
and  its  bad  sides.  On  the  one  hand,  it  enables  the  grower  to 
come  to  the  rescue  quickly  when  his  plantation  shows  poor 
growth  from  winter  injury,  or  from  any  other  cause ;  and  on  the 
other,  the  effects  of  the  fertilizer  are  quickly  dissipated  and 
need  to  be  supplemented  by  another  application  of  this  fertilizer 
or  by  the  use,  along  with  this,  of  some  more  slowly  acting  mate- 
rial. Nitrate  of  soda  is  also,  as  a  rule,  one  of  the  cheapest  forms 
in  which  nitrogen  can  be  purchased  and  there  is  less  chance  of 
its  being  adulterated. 

Tankage  is  a  by-product  from  slaughter  houses,  containing 
blood,  bone  and  various  other  refuse  in  a  finely  ground  condi- 
tion. It  is  strongest  on  the  nitrogen  side,  but  contains  consider- 
able phosphoric  acid  and  some  potash.  Its  nitrogen  is  slowly 
available  and  a  combination  of  this  with  nitrate  of  soda  will 
give  excellent  results  in  the  way  of  a  long-continued  and 
steady  growth. 

Nitrate  of  lime,  or  "  Cyanamid,"  is  another  good  form  and 
is  being  more  and  more  used.  It  is  a  manufactured  form,  made 
by  combining  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  with  lime,  and  ought  some 
day  to  be  cheap  enough  to  revolutionize  farming.  Its  effects  and 
peculiarities  have  not  been  as  fully  determined  as  those  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  but  in  general  it  is  somewhat  comparable  to 
that  material. 

Sulfate  of  ammonia  is  another  slowly  acting  form  of  nitro- 
gen which  combines  well,  in  effect,  with  one  of  the  more  quickly 
acting  types. 

Acid  Phosphate. — Among  phosphoric  acid  fertilizers,  acid 
phosphate  is  perhaps  in  most  common  use  with  small  fruits.  It 
is  a  manufactured  article,  being  made  from  either  rock  phos- 


24  FERTILIZERS 

ph«ntes  or  bone  meal  bv  treating  them  with  sulfuric  acid  in 
order  to  render  the  phosphoric  acid  more  soluble  and  hence  more 
quickly  available. 

Bone  meal  is  another  very  popular  forin,  but  is  not  so  readily 
available.  If  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured  in  the  groA\i;h  of 
2  plants  probably  some  acid  phosphate  and  some  bone  meal  ought 
'^  to  be  included  in  the  formula,  the  former  for  immediate  use  and 
the  latter  for  later  use  by  the  plant. 

Basic  slag  is  a  third  form  of  phosphoric  acid  and  has  about 
the  same  availability  as  bone  meal. 

Forms  of  Potash. — Of  potash  in  normal  times,  two  forms 
have  been  in  use,  the  muriate  and  the  sulfate.  There  seems  to 
be  little  difference  in  their  popularity.  Muriate  is  usually  some- 
w^hat  cheaper,  while  there  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  the 
sulfate  has  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  likelihood  of  winter  in- 
jury. Muriate  also  has  a  tendency  to  make  the  soil  sour  by  tak- 
ing out  of  it  the  lime  content.  This  is  caused  by  the  chemical 
changes  going  oil  in  the  soil  by  which  the  hydrochloric  acid  of 
the  muriate  of  potash  combines  with  lime,  fomiing  chloride  of 
lime  which  is  soluble  and  likely  to  pass  out  of  the  soil  with  the 
drainage  water. 

Use  of  Lime. — Lime  has  been  mentioned  as  one  of  the  sub- 
stances which  may  be  needed  and  it  is  occasionally  used  with 
small  fruits,  but,  with  the  exception  of  grapes,  it  is  seldom  used 
directly  upon  the  fruit  crop.  It  is  used  in  preparing  a  block 
for  these  fruits  in  order  to  get  a  satisfactory  growth  of  some 
crop  to  plow  under.  But  since  these  fruits  either  seem  indif- 
ferent to  acidity  of  the  soil,  or  actually  to  prefer  such  a  soil,  it  is 
not  considered  good  practice  to  use  lime  on  them  directly. 

Two  other  fertilizing  materials  ought  to  be  mentioned  in 
this  discussion,  though  they  are  not  classified  with  any  of 
the  three  types  discussed.  These  are  barnyard  manure  and 
wood  ashes. 

Barnyard  manure  is  an  unbalanced  complete  fertilizer, 
which  is  very  strong  on  the  nitrogen  side.  If  precautions  are 
taken  to  supplement  it  with  chemical  or  commercial  fertilizers 
in  order  to  balance  up  the  formula  there  is  nothing  so  conducive 


APPLYING  FERTILIZERS  25 

to  success  with  most  small  fruits  as  the  use  of  some  barnyard 
mamire.  Its  effect  is  shown  along  two  lines.  In  the  first  place, 
as  already  suggested,  it  carries  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen,  some 
of  it  very  readily  available  and  some  more  slowly,  so  that  we 
may  expect  the  effects  already  discussed  under  nitrogen.  In 
the  second  place,  it  carries,  of  course,  a  large  amount  of  vege^- 
table  material  which  quickly  forms  humus,  so  that  we  get  the 
benefits  Avhich  come  from  that  material,  viz.,  holding  moisture 
and  improving  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

There  is  little  question  in  the  writer's  mind  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  bring  along  a  small-fruit  plantation  a  little  more  satis- 
factorily if  some  barnyard  manure  can  be  used,  than  can  be 
done  in  any  other  way.  With  plenty  of  commercial  fertilizers, 
and  with  an  abundance  of  large  growing  crops  plowed  under,  it 
may  be  possible  to  fairly  closely  approximate  the  results  of 
barnyard  manure. 

Wood  ashes,  especially  those  from  hard  wood,  are  an  excel- 
lent fertilizing  material  for  these  fruits.  They  are  particularly 
strong  in  potash  and  lime,  but  carry  more  or  less  of  some  other 
mineral  elements,  and  their  use  is  to  be  commended  if  a  good 
grade  of  ashes,  one  that  has  not  had  the  potash  leached  out  of 
it,  can  be  secured. 

Applying  Fertilizers. — Fertilizers  are  best  applied  by  some 
machine  or  distributor  where  plantations  of  any  size  are  to  be 
handled.  The  two  types  of  machines  shown  in  figiires  12  and  13 
will  be  found  admirable.  In  most  cases  it  is  considered  best  to 
apply  at  least  a  part  of  the  fertilizer  which  is  to  be  used  the 
year  of  setting,  after  the  plants  have  been  set.  A  part  of  it  may 
be  put  on  beforehand,  but,  particularly  with  nitrogen,  there  is 
likely  to  be  some  loss  if  the  fertilizer  is  all  put  on  in  the  opera- 
tion of  fitting  the  land  before  setting. 

Fertilizers  applied  to  established  fruit  plantations  (that  is, 
in  seasons  after  the  year  of  setting)  are  generally  applied  fairly 
early  in  the  spring.  If  insoluble  materials  are  used,  like  bone 
meal  or  slag,  it  is  desirable  to  get  them  on  either  before  plowing 
or  very  soon  after  it,  so  that  the  working  of  the  soil  may  incor- 
porate them  thoroughly  with  it.     If  this  is  not  done,  the  fer- 


26  FERTILIZERS 

tilizers  being  applied  after  all  the  littiug  of  the  land  has  been 
done,  then  there  is  only  the  subsequent  cultivation  to  work  them 
into  the  soil  and  we  do  not  derive  as  much  benefit  that  season 
from,  the  fertilizer  as  we  should. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  do  some  fertilizing  elements  in  the  soil  become  exhausted? 

2.  Why  do  others  not  become  exhausted? 

3.  What  do  you  consider  the  most  important  elleet  of    soil  nitrogen  on 

the  growth   of  plants? 

4.  Have  you  ever  seen  such  an  effect? 

5.  How  does  potash  affect  the  gro\vth  of  plants? 

6.  Have  you  ever  seen  the  effects  of  phosphoric  acid  on  plant  growth? 

7.  Is  lime  useful  to  plants?     In  what  ways? 

8.  Describe  the  effects  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

9.  What  is  tankage?     When  would  you  use  it? 

10.  What  is  cyanamid?     Where  and  how  is  it  made? 

11.  What  are  the  most  valuable  points  of  barnyard  manure  as  a  fertilizer? 

12.  Have  you  ever  seen  effects  on  crops  from  using  wood  ashes?     What 

were  they? 


CHAPTER  IV 
COMPANION  CROPS 

The  term  companion  crop  is  generally  accepted  to  mean  one 
which  is  grown  along  with  another  more  important  and  usually 
more  permanent  crop.  As  used  in  the  discussion  here  it  would 
certainly  have  both  of  these  characteristics,  a  transient  and  rela- 
tively unimportant  crop,  yet  often  a  very  useful  one,  a  "  pot- 
boiler," to  borrow  an  expression  from  the  artist's  profession. 

But  while  the  companion  crop  is  relatively  unimportant, 
when  compared  with  the  fruit  crop,  still  it  holds  a  very  signifi- 
cant place  in  the  fruit  industry,  and  there  is  no  branch  of  farm- 
ing, with  the  possible  exception  of  vegetable  gardening,  where 
the  companion  crop  is  more  commonly  or  more  successfully  used 
than  in  fruit  growing. 

With  the  fruits  under  discussion  in  this  volume,  it  is  rela- 
tively less  important  than  with  the  tree  fruits,  because  these 
latter  are  long-time  fruits,  which  are  placed  wide  apart  and  take 
a  number  of  years  to  reach  their  full  size,  thus  giving,  from  one 
standpoint  at  least,  the  ideal  conditions  for  the  introduction 
of  the  companion  or  inter-crop.  Still,  even  with  the  fruits  at 
present  under  discussion,  it  is  often  deemed  advisable  to  inter- 
crop the  plantation,  and  it  certainly  seems  worth  while  to  con- 
sider briefly  the  arguments  ])ro  and  con  on  the  question. 

Objects. — Of  course,  the  primary  consideration  which  usu- 
ally determines  a  grower  of  small  fruits  to  use  some  companion 
crop  with  his  raspberries,  or  his  currants,  or  his  grapes,  is  the 
idea  that  it  is  going  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  plantation  while 
it  is  becoming  established  and  getting  into  bearing.  If  it 
accomplishes  this  object  it,  to  a  considerable  degree,  justifies 
the  venture. 

Tv^ro  very  important  considerations  ought  to  be  kept  con- 
stantly in  mind  here,  and  these  are,  first,  that  the  companion 
crop  may  not  pay  a  profit,  and,  second,  that  even  though  it  does 
prove  profitable  in  itself,  it  may  entail  so  much  extra  work  to 
keep  the  fruit  plantation  in  proper  condition,  or  may  so  retard 

27 


28  COMPANION  CROPS 

or  injure  its  growth,  that  any  financial  benefit  from  the  com- 
panion crop  of  beans  or  potatoes  may  be  more  than  ofiset  by  the 
damage  to  the  permanent  fruit  crop  of  raspberries  or  grapes. 

Shall  There  be  a  Companion  Crop? — Like  most  questions 
in  fill  it  growing,  or  in  any  other  profession,  for  that  matter,  this 
one  of  companion  crojjs  will  depend  largely  on  the  personal, 
local  conditions  which  belong  to  the  special  plantation  under 
consideration.  But  in  order  to  assist  the  prospective  fi-uit 
grower  to  decide  the  matter  it  may  be  well  to  introduce  here, 
very  briefly,  the  affirmative  and  negative  arguments  on 
the  question. 

Arguments  for  Companion  Crops. — Taking  first  those  argu- 
ments which  favor  the  companion  crop,  we  have  the  following : 

1.  As  already  suggested,  the  idea  that  it  will  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  the  fruit  plantation  until  it  comes  into  bearing.  If 
this  is  tiaie  it  is  certainly  an  important  point.  But  one  ought  to 
be  reasonably  sure  that  it  will  turn  out  so  in  his  own  particular 
case  before  he  embarks  on  the  venture.  Because  Jones,  a  profes- 
sional market  gardener,  makes  500  dollars  an  acre  on  cabbage 
grown  under  his  conditions,  it  does  not  follow  by  any  means  that 
Brown,  a  fruit  grower  (and  perhaps  not  a  professional  at  that) 
can  do  the  same  with  cabbages  planted  among  his  currants. 
Moreover,  the  need  of  a  companion  crop  in  a  small  fmit  planta- 
tion is  by  no  means  as  acute  as  it  is  in  an  apple  orchard.  With 
the  latter  the  owner  must  usually  wait  anywhere  from  six  to 
twelve  years  before  he  can  expect  a  profitable  income,  while  with 
the  small  fruits  it  is  seldom  over  three  years,  and  with  straw- 
berries only  one  year,  before  the  maximum  returns  are  reached. 
.  2.  A  second  benefit  which  may  come  to  the  small  fruit  plan- 
tation from  the  companion  crop  is  more  thorough  cultivation. 
While  this  may  come,  it  also  may  not  come,  and  frequently  does 
not  come.  It  hinges  pretty  largely  on  just  how  intensive  the 
cultivation  of  the  combined  plantation  is.  If  the  companion 
crop  is  such  a-o  to  demand  very  thorough  culture,  then  the  small 
fruits  will  usually  get  the  same  and  will  benefit  proportionately. 
But  if  the  companion  crop  is  of  a  type  to  get  along  with  rather 
indiiferent  culture,  then  its  interference  with  the  cultivation  of 


DISADVANTAGES  29 

the  small  fruits  may  more  than  offset  any  advantage.  On  the 
whole,  however,  the  influence  of  the  companion  crop  is  apt  to  be 
in  the  direction  of  better  culture.  It  certainly  will  be  in  case 
the  same  crop,  if  not  growoi  among  the  small  fruits,  is  to  be 
grown  on  some  other  part  of  the  farm,  for  in  this  latter  case  the 
competition  between  the  two  plantations  for  the  available  labor 
supply  is  pretty  sure  to  result  in  a  defeat  for  the  small  fruit  crop. 

3.  A  third  advantage  wdiich  usually  comes  to  the  small 
fruits  from  the  companion  crop  is  in  the  matter  of  fertilizers. 
Most  companion  crops  are  well  fertilized,  and  some  of  this  fer- 
tility is  sure  to  go  to  the  small  fruits,  either  that  year  or  in 
following  years,  or  both. 

Disadvantages. — Turning  now  to  the  disadvantages  Vvhich 
come  to  the  small  fruits  from  being  associated  with  the  com- 
panion crop,  we  find  the  following  list,  which  is  likely  to  be 
more  or  less  important : 

1.  A  loss  of  the  requisite  amount  of  water.  Whether  this 
difficulty  arises  or  not  depends  largely  on  just  how  thoroughly 
the  plantation  is  cultivated,  and  on  the  type  of  soil  and  its 
humus  content ;  but  since  practically  all  the  fruits  under  con- 
sideration are  very  dependent  on  a  liberal  and  continuous  water 
supply,  this  objection  to  the  companion  crop  ought  to  be  very 
carefully  considered  and  every  precaution  taken  to  prevent  a 
shortage  of  moisture. 

2.  A  second  objection  to  the  companion  crop,  which  usually 
applies,  is  that  it  puts  a  stop  to  any  cross  cultivation,  and  this, 
of  course,  means  more  expense  and  usually  at  the  same  time  less 
satisfactory  results.  Some  companion  crops,  like  sweet  corn, 
will  allow  of  cross  cultivation;  and  with  some  of  the  fruits, 
particularly  strawberries,  cross  cultivation  may  not  be  attempted, 
even  though  there  is  no  inter-crop.  But  when  cross  cultivation 
might  be  used,  the  introduction  of  a  companion  crop  which  pre- 
vents it  ought  to  be  done  only  after  carefully  considering  the 
question  from  both  sides. 

3.  A  third  objection  to  the  companion  crop,  though  fre- 
quently not  a  very  serious  one  during  the  first  year  of  the  plan- 
tation, is  that  it  is  likely  to  encroach  on  the  fruit  crop  in  the 


30  COMPANION  CROPS 

matters  of  food  and  light  and  air.  Some  low-growing  crops,  the 
roots  of  which  do  not  forage  widely  in  the  soil,  may  not  be  open 
to  this  objection;  but  a  number  of  them  are  and  ought  to  be 
thrown  out  for  this  single  reason,  though  satisfactory  in  every 
other  way.  It  doesn't  pay  to  jeopardize  a  permanent  invest- 
ment for  the  sake  of  a  transient  one.  The  shortage  of  food  will 
cause  a  poor  development  of  the  fruit  plants,  reducing  their  size 
and  vigor ;  the  shortage  of  light  works  in  the  same  direction, 
making  the  plants  more  spindling  and  less  likely  to  come  into 
bearing  quickly  and  to  give  the  maximum  crops  when  they  do 
bear ;  while  the  shortage  in  air  or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  in 
air  movement  tends  towards  the  development  of  fungous  dis- 
eases in  fruits  with  all  the  attendant  troubles  and  expenses. 

4.  A  fourth  objection  which  ought  to  be  kept  in  mind, 
though  it  is  much  less  likely  to  apply  to  these  fruits  than  to  the 
tree  fruits,  is  that  the  fertilizers  used  on  the  companion  crop 
may  over-stimulate  the  fruits  and  cause  them  to  make  so  much 
growth  that  they  either  suffer  injury  the  following  winter,  or 
go  to  wood  at  the  expense  of  fruit  in  case  they  are  not  injured. 
Since  most  of  the  fruits  under  consideration  will  stand  consid- 
erable fertility  one  should  not  over-emphasize  this  danger,  but 
in  those  sections  where  winter  injury  is  a  common  danger,  this 
side  of  the  question  ought  to  be  constantly  kept  in  mind,  for 
there  are  few  more  disheartening  experiences  than  to  find,  when 
spring  opens,  that  the  fruit  plantation  has  been  damaged  by  the 
cold  weather. 

Intensity  of  Cultivation. — On  the  whole,  the  question  of  in- 
troducing companion  crops  into  small-fruit  plantations  is  likely 
to  depend  pretty  largely  on  how  intensive  the  cultivation  is  to 
be.  If  the  companion  crop,  the  owner,  and  the  general  condi- 
tions are  such  as  to  make  thorough  cultivation  reasonably  cer- 
tain, then  there  is  little  danger  in  the  venture.  But  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  any  or  all  of  these  conditions  are  on  the  wrong  side, 
then  it  is  much  better  not  to  introduce  the  companion  crop. 

Crops  to  Grov^^. — If  crops  are  to  be  used,  the  following  will 
be  found  among  the  most  satisfactory : 

1.  Beans  of  all  kinds  (with  the  possible  exception  of  pole 


QUESTIONS  31 

beans),  since  they  are  apt  to  be  profitable,  require  good  culture 
and  add  some  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  do  not 
make  so  rank  a  growth  nor  draw  so  heavily  on  the  soil  as  to 
damage  the  fruits. 

2.  Beets,  carrots,  turnips,  and  other  similar  crops  are  used 
for  about  the  same  reasons  as  the  beans,  except  that  they  do  not 
supply  any  nitrogen. 

3.  Potatoes  are  especially  useful  because  they  can  be  grown 
and  handled  in  large  quantities  and  their  effect  is  usually  good 
if  one  guards  against  too  much  fertility. 

4.  Sweet  corn  or  the  flint  varieties  of  field  corn  may  be 
used,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  rows  are  not  run 
too  close  to  the  fruits.  And  since  most  of  these  fruits  do  not 
carry  any  great  distance  between  the  rows,  the  small  amount  of 
available  space  for  the  inter-crop  may  make  their  use  inadvisable. 

5.  Cabbages  are  usually  satisfactory  and  are  frequently 
used.  Late  cabbages  in  particular  are  good  because  the  fruit 
plantation  can  be  put  in  thoroughly  good  condition  and  a  good 
share  of  the  gro\\i:h  of  the  fruit  plants  secured  before  the 
cabbages  are  set. 

Many  other  similar  crops  may  be  used,  keeping  in  mind  the 
dangers  already  suggested. 

Small  fruits  are,  of  course,  often  used  as  companion  crops 
in  orchards,  and  frequently  currants  and  raspberries  are  used 
in  vineyards.  Usually  they  are  profitable  when  so  grown,  and 
if  the  culture  is  sufficiently  intensive  to  prevent  the  permanent 
crop  from  being  injured  the  combination  is  good. 

QUESTION 

1.  Define  a  companion  crop. 

2.  Do  you  believe  in  iisinjr  companion  crops  in  a  raspberry  plantation? 

Why? 

3.  What  is  the  most  important  argument  in  favor  of  companion  crops? 

4.  What  is  the  most  important  argument  against  them? 

5.  Do  you  think  a  companion  crop  will   very  often   injure  a  permanent 

crop  by  robbing  it  of  water?     Have  you  ever  seen  such  a  case? 

6.  Have  you  ever  used  a  companion  crop? 

7.  If  you  have,  what  was  it  and  how  did  it  succeed? 

8.  What  do  you   think   is  the  best   companion   crop   in  your  section   for 

strawberries  ? 


CHAPTER  V 
COVER  CROPS 

The  use  of  a  cover  crop,  a  temporary  crop  to  be  plowed 
under  for  the  benefit  of  the  soil,  is  much  less  common  in  small 
fi-uit  plantations  than  in  orchards.  For  one  thing  these  plan- 
tations are  relatively  shorter  lived,  and  consequently  the  need 
for  the  cover  crop  is  less  acute,  and  for  another  thing  the  rows 
being  so  much  closer  together  than  with  orchards  make  it  more 
difficult  to  use  a  cover  crop. 

But  even  so  it  is  very  desirable  that  a  cover  crop  be  used 
whenever  it  is  at  all  possible,  and  therefore  a  short  discussion  of 
such  crops  seems  desirable  in  this  general  section. 

By  way  of  definition  it  may  be  said  that  a  cover  crop  is  a 
temporary  and  generally  an  annual  crop,  which  is  sown  on  the 
land  usually  towards  the  latter  end  of  the  growing  season  and 
later  plowed  under.  Its  principal  object  is  to  benefit  the  land 
in  various  ways.  Usually  there  is  no  direct  financial  benefit 
from  the  crop,  though  occasionally  it  may  be  possible  to  sell  a 
part  of  the  crop  and  still  retain  enough  of  it  to  satisfactorily 
serve  the  main  purposes  of  the  cover. 

Benefits  of  a  Cover  Crop. — The  following  are  some  of  the 
principal  ways  in  which  the  cover  crop  may  be  beneficial  to 
the  plantation : 

1.  Probably  the  most  important  benefit  with  the  fruits  under 
discussion  is  that  it  adds  humus  to  the  soil.  The  need  of  this 
has  already  been  discussed ;  and  no  matter  how  thoroughly  the 
eoil  may  have  been  supplied  with  humus  before  the  plantation 
was  set  out,  there  is  certain  to  be  a  depletion  of  it  before  the 
plantation  is  abandoned.  This  function  is  better  seiwed  by 
some  covers  than  by  others,  and  with  very  light  or  very  heavy 
soils,  where  the  humus  content  would  be  especially  important, 
those  cover  crops  ought  to  be  selected  that  will  give  the  largest 
amount  of  humus  possible. 

2.  It  prevents  the  washing  of  the  soiL     This  function  will 
32 


BENEFITS  OF  A  COVER  CROP  33 

vary  in  importance  according  to  the  location  of  the  plantation. 
On  side  hill  lands  such  as  are  used  for  many  of  these  fruits,  the 
question  of  erosion  is  sure  to  be  an  important  one.  On  perfectly 
flat  or  almost  flat  lands  it  would  not  be  important,  but  such 
lands  are  not  very  often  used  for  the  small  fruits  except  straw- 
berries. It.  is  surprising  how  slight  a  slope  is  necessary  to  cause 
damage  to  the  soil  from  washing.  A  field  which  the  average 
man  would  pronounce  nearly  level  will  have  sufficient  move- 
ment of  water  over  its  surface  to  cause  very  serious  damage 
from  washing,  particularly  in  the  early  spring  when  the  frost 
is  coming  out  of  the  gi'ound  and  the  soil  is  wet  and  ready  to  move. 
The  movement  of  water  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  to  be 
avoided  not  only  because  one  loses  part  of  the  soil  itself,  as  above 
suggested,  but  because  gullies  are  likely  to  be  formed  which 
interfere  with  cultivation  and  other  work  in  the  plantation ;  be- 
cause soluble  plant  food  passes  oif  dissolved  in  the  water,  and 
because  during  dry  spells  the  water  runs  away  so  quickly  that 
there  is  not  time  for  the  needed  amount  to  soak  into  the  soil  for 
the  use  of  the  crop.  For  all  these  reasons  the  function  of  stop- 
ping or  retarding  the  movement  of  water  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  is  a  very  important  one,  and  on  slopes  of  any  degree  of 
abruptness  cover  crops  should  be  selected  with  fibrous  root  sys- 
tems and  recumbent  tops,  so  that  the  water  and  soil  may  be  held 
to  the  gi'eatest  possible  extent. 

3.  Another  valuable  function  which  the  cover  crop  may  per- 
form is  the  adding  of  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  This  occurs,  of  course, 
only  with  leguminous  crops  such  as  clovers  and  vetches,  and  it 
amounts  to  very  little  in  a  poor  soil  where  these  plants  will 
make  but  an  indifferent  growth.  But  if  one  starts  with  a  fertile 
soil  and  uses  the  right  crop  the  cover  may  be  made  a  valuable 
feature  in  keeping  up  fertility. 

4.  The  cover  crop  assists  in  keeping  up  the  supply  of  avail- 
able plant  food  in  the  soil  by  itself  foraging  among  the  soil  par- 
ticles, bringing  into  solution,  by  the  action  of  its  roots,  some  of 
the  mineral  materials  in  those  particles,  and  building  these  up 
into  its  own  tissues.  Then  when  the  cover  crop  is  plowed  under 
and  decays,  these  materials  become  a  part  of  the  available  store 

3 


34  COVER  CROPS 

of  plant  food.  In  this  way  the  cover  crop  relieves  the  fruit  plant 
of  some  of  the  rough  labor,  so  to  speak,  of  working  over  the  soil 
particles  into  organic  material  which,  even  when  it  decays,  does 
not  go  back  into  quite  such  unavailable  form  as  it  was  before. 

5.  Closely  allied  to  this  effect  is  its  action  (provided  it 
grows  late  in  the  autumn  or  early  in  the  spring  while  the  fruit 
plants  are  dormant)  of  taking  up  the  available  plant  food  in  the 
soil  and  building  it  into  its  own  tissues,  thus  saving  what  might 
otherwise  be  lost. 

6.  It  also  helps  to  hold  snow  and  leaves  in  the  plantation, 
thus  protecting  the  roots  and  crowns  of  the  fruits  from  injury, 
securing  whatever  humus  might  develop  from  the  leaves,  and 
whatever  of  fertilizing  value  might  be  brought  down  by  the  snow. 

Altogether  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cover  crop  holds  great  pos- 
sibilities of  usefulness  if  it  is  properly  handled. 

What  to  Grow  as  Cover  Crops. — The  following  are  a  few 
of  the  most  generally  satisfactory  crops  to  be  used  as  covers  in 
the  small  f niit  plantation : 

1.  Buckwheat. — This  is  a  very  useful  crop,  performing 
many  of  the  functions  outlined  above,  but  being  especially 
strong  in  furnishing  humus  and  in  bringing  the  soil  into  good 
physical  condition.  And  since  this  latter  is  always  a  difficulty 
with  the  longer-lived  small  fruit  plantations,  it  is  deservedly 
popular  with  growers.  It  does  not  add  nitrogen  and  is  not  very 
strong  on  preventing  washing  of  the  soil.  It  is  usually  sown  at 
about  one  bushel  of  seed  per  acre. 

2.  Barley  or  Rye. — These  crops  are  in  the  same  general 
class  as  buckwheat,  being  especially  valuable  from  the  humus 
standpoint.  They  do  not  have  quite  so  good  an  effect  on  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil,  but  are  considerably  better  in  pre- 
venting washing  of  the  soil.  In  fact,  with  the  fibrous  root  sys- 
tem, and  the  abundant  top,  which  breaks  down  and  covers  the 
surface  well,  either  barley  or  rye  is  effective  in  stopping  erosion. 
The  objection  to  rye  is  that  it  lives  over  winter  and  is  therefore 
likely  to  be  a  weed  the  following  season,  growing  up  among  the 
plants  of  the  plantation  and  requiring  some  expense  to  kill  it. 
Tor  this  reason  many  growers  do  not  use  it. 


WEEDS  35 

Such  grain  is  usually  sown  at  one  and  one-half  bushels  per 
acre.    Of  course,  like  buckwheat,  they  give  no  nitrogen. 

3.  Clover. — Several  kinds  of  clover  may  be  used,  but  where 
the  weather  is  not  too  severe  in  winter  crimson  clover  is  prob- 
ably the  best,  because  it  will  make  more  growth  before  winter 
sets  in,  which  is  the  time  when  most  of  the  growth  ought  to  be 
made.  Sown  at  fifteen  pounds  per  acre  it  will  usually  give  a 
good  account  of  itself,  especially  when  it  is  used  for  several 
seasons  in  succession.  It  is  particularly  good  as  a  cover,  its 
fibrous  roots  and  recumbent  tops  preventing  almost  entirely  any 
washing  of  the  soil.  It  is  also  one  of  the  best  crops  to  add  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil.  The  principal  difficulty  with  its  use  with  these 
fruits  is  the  fact  that  the  cultivation  is  usually  carried  pretty 
late  into  the  season  which  does  not  leave  time  enough  for  the 
clover  to  make  much  growth  before  cold  weather.  Since  it  is 
very  desirable  that  the  fitting  of  the  land  be  started  early  the 
following  spring  there  is  little  chance  for  growth  early  in  the 
season  before  plowing.  In  warm  climates  it  may  grow  nearly 
all  winter. 

4.  Dwarf  Rape. — This  is  an  excellent  crop  for  the  purpose 
under  discussion  (Fig.  IG).  It  makes  a  fairly  quick  growth 
and  grows  late  in  the  season  so  that  it  gives  a  good  amount  of 
humus ;  its  root  system,  though  not  very  extensive,  is  fibrous  so 
that  it  holds  the  soil  well ;  and  the  seed  is  so  cheap  that  the  cost 
is  not  a  serious  matter  as  it  is  with  many  other  crops.  It  is 
sown  at  two  pounds  per  acre  which,  in  noraial  times,  will  cost 
about  ten  cents  per  pound.  It  does  not  add  nitrogen,  of  course, 
but  its  other  good  points  make  it  a  desirable  crop  to  use. 

5.  Mixtures. — Clover  may  be  profitably  mixed  with  any  of 
the  other  three  crops  mentioned,  but  especially  with  rye,  barley, 
rape,  and  buckwheat,  and  the  combination  will  be  more  satisfac- 
tory than  any  one  crop  alone.  In  fact,  the  combination  of 
barley  and  clover  or  buckwheat  and  clover  will  be  found  to 
perform  admirably  practically  all  of  the  functions  outlined  at 
the  beginning  of  this  chapter. 

6.  Weeds. — If  the  plantation  is  supplied  with  the  right 
types  of  weeds  (Fig.  17),  that  is,  if  they  are  abundant  and 


36 


COVER  CROPS 


Fig.  17. — A  crop  of  weeds  in  a  young  raspberry  plantation,  mostly  pig-weed  and  rag-weed, 
and  entirely  satisfactory  from  almost  all  standpoints. 


OTHER  COVERS  37 

growthy  without  being  hard  to  keep  in  check  during  the  season 
of  cultivating,  they  may  very  well  be  used  in  whole  or  in  part  as 
substitutes  for  the  cover  crops  just  mentioned.  Such  weeds  as 
the  various  kinds  of  "  pig-weeds  "  and  many  kinds  of  grasses 
(not,  however,  including  witch  grass )  will  perform  many  of  the 
functions  of  a  cover  crop  without  any  cost  for  seed  or  sowing. 
It  happens  that  in  most  sections  none  of  the  plants  that  are 
likely  to  grow  as  weeds  in  a  fruit  plantation  are  legumes,  and 
consequently  the  soil  will  gain  no  nitrogen  from  their  growth. 
But  for  a  cover,  for  adding  humus,  for  bringing  plant  food  into 
solution  from  the  soil  particles  and  for  holding  snow  and  leaves, 
some  weeds  are  very  effective  indeed.  The  objection  to  them  is 
pretty  largely  one  of  sentiment.  We  are  afraid  of  what  the 
neighbors  will  say  or  think !  Just  let  the  neighbors  do  the 
worrying  for  once  and  try  a  good  crop  of  pig-weeds  with  some 
crimson  clover  added,  as  a  nitrogen  gatherer,  and  see  if  the 
result  is  not  entirely  satisfactory.  Of  course,  one  should  be 
careful  that  serious  weeds  do  not  get  a  start,  but  if  this  is  at- 
tended to  there  would  appear  to  be  really  no  very  important  way 
in  which  a  crop  of  buckwheat  is  better  than  a  good  crop  of  pig- 
weeds. The  block  to  worry  about  is  the  block  that  fails  to 
grow  weeds. 

7.  Other  Covers. — In  southern  sections  cowpeas  are  often 
used  as  a  cover  crop  and  are  very  satisfactory.  In  many  sec- 
tions oats  are-  also  used,  but  in  the  writer's  experience  are  not 
as  satisfactory  as  barley. 

The  general  plan  followed  in  the  use  of  a  cover  ci'op  in  a 
fruit  plantation  is  to  sow  the  seed  just  previous  to  or  following 
the  last  cultivation.  This  cultivation  covers  iii  the  seed,  or  with 
crimson  clover  and  some  others  the  rain  covers  the  seed  enough 
when  it  is  sown  on  newly  cultivated  soil.  The  crop  is  then 
allowed  to  make  what  growth  it  will  that  autumn,  and  is 
plowed  under  the  following  spring.  In  some  fruit  plantations 
some  growth  of  the  cover  crop  may  be  allowable  in  the  spring 
before  the  land  is  plowed,  but  this  is  not  usually  desirable  in 
small  fruit  plantations  except  in  warm  climates,  and  is  never  to 
be  encouraged  where  cross  cultivation  is  not  possible. 


J8  COVER  CROPS 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  a  cover  crop? 

2.  What  do  you   consider    is   the   most   important   single   benefit  from 

cover  crop? 

3.  Have  you  ever  used  cover  crops  or  seen  them  used? 

4.  Explain  the  way  in  which  a  crop  may  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 

5.  What  is  the  best  cover  crop  for  your  section? 

6.  How  does  a  cover  crop  aflect  the  supply  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  ? 

7.  What  are  the  good  points  of  buckwheat  as  a  cover  crop? 

8.  What  do  you  think  of  weeds  as  cover  crops? 


CHAPTER  VI 
SPRAYING  MATERIALS  AND  APPARATUS 

The  problems  involved  in  the  spraying  of  small  fruit  plan- 
tations are  relatively  simple;  first  because  the  number  of  in- 
sects and  diseases  for  which  we  spray  is  relatively  small,  and 
second  because  comparatively  few  materials  are  used. 

Of  the  great  number  of  materials  on  the  market,  or  de- 
scribed in  spraying  bulletins  and  used  for  various  insects  and 
diseases  which  prey  upon  the  plant  world,  only  about  a  half 
dozen  at  the  outside  are  necessary  to  control  the  pests  of  small 
fruits.  These  are  arsenate  of  lead,  lime-sulfur,  nicotine,  and 
perhaps  arsenate  of  lime  among  insecticides ;  and  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture, lime-sulfur,  and  perhaps  plain  sulfur  among  fungicides. 
Of  course,  many  others  might  be  used,  and  some  of  them  may 
have  certain  advantages  over  those  mentioned  for  certain  pests ; 
but  if  one  is  equipped  with  the  above  list,  or,  in  fact,  with  three 
or  four  out  of  the  eight,  he  will  never  get  into  dangers  from 
which  he  cannot  extricate  himself.  And  since  it  seems  desirable 
to  limit  the  present  discussion  as  far  as  possible,  only  the  list 
given  above  will  be  considered. 

Of  the  insecticides  mentioned  two,  arsenate  of  lead  and 
arsenate  of  lime,  are  stomach  poisons  for  the  chewing  type  of 
insects,  and  two,  lime-sulfur  and  nicotine,  are  contact  poisons 
for  sucking  insects. 

Arsenate  of  Lead. — At  the  present  time  arsenate  of  lead  is 
by  far  the  most  popular  and  widely  used  poison  of  its  type  on 
the  market,  having  practically  driven  out  all  such  forms  as  Lon- 
don purple,  Paris  green,  hellebore,  etc.  It  is  sold  in  two  forms, 
the  paste  form  and  the  dry  or  powdered  form,  with  the  latter 
gaining  over  the  fonner  every  year  in  popularity.  The  great 
advantage  of  the  pow^der  is  that  one  does  not  have  the  extra 
water  to  pay  freight  on  and  to  add  to  the  work  of  handling.  As 
methods  of  manufacture  have  been  perfected  so  that  the  powder 


40  SPRAYING  MATERIALS  AND  APPARATUS 

has  been  made  with  larger  but  lighter  particles  (flaky  instead 
of  sandy  in  character),  so  that  they  would  not  sink  out  so 
quickly  in  the  spray  cask,  and  would  adhere  better  to  the  leaves 
of  the  plants,  this  form  has  won  its  way  right  to  the  front.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  the  paste 
stands  up  in  suspension  better  in  the  spray  tank  and  that  as  a 
class  the  pastes  adhere  better,  so  that  some  growers  are  still  in 
favor  of  that  form.  For  most  work  the  powder  is  used  at  a  rate 
of  one  and  one-half  pounds  per  fifty  gallons  of  water,  and  the 
paste  at  twice  that. 

If  the  paste  is  used  it  ought  to  be  thoroughly  worked  up,  in 
additional  water,  before  it  is  added  to  the  spraying  cask,  and  if 
the  powder  is  used  it  should  be  mixed  with  a  small  amount  of 
water  (which  is  added  somewhat  gradually  as  the  mixing  pro- 
gresses), and  this  mixture  of  water  and  powder  should  not  be 
put  into  the  cask  until  the  mixing  is  thoroughly  completed. 
Above  all,  do  not  put  the  powder  in  its  original,  dry  condition, 
directly  into  the  spray  cask,  as  it  will  collect  around  the  edges 
of  the  cask  and  stick  there,  only  a  part  becoming  mixed  with 
the  water. 

Arsenate  of  lime,  or  calcium  arsenate,  while  it  has  been  used 
in  a  limited  way  for  a  good  many  years,  was  brought  into  promi- 
nence by  the  scarcity  and  high  price  of  lead.  This  condition, 
and  the  patriotic  duty  of  conserving  lead  for  other  purposes,  led 
manufacturers  of  insecticides  to  push  the  sales  of  calcium  arsen- 
ate, and  its  use  has  very  largely  increased.  As  was  to  be  ex- 
pected under  these  circumstances  the  material  is  not  yet  entirely 
satisfactory  from  the  fruit-grower's  standpoint.  At  the  present 
time  the  following  seems  to  be  a  fair  statement  of  the  situation. 
The  commercial  brands  of  calcium  arsenate  on  the  market  are 
quite  variable  in  composition,  varying  both  in  the  total  arsenic 
contained,  so  that  the  fruit  grower  is  uncertain  just  how  much 
should  be  used,  and  varying  also  in  the  amount  of  soluble 
arsenic  contained,  so  that  some  burning  of  the  foliage  is  likely 
to  occur.  These  difficulties  will  no  doubt  disappear  as  methods 
of  manufacture  are  perfected.  In  particular  it  seems  to  be  de- 
sirable that  a  chemically  neutral  instead  of  an  acid  arsenate  of 


NICOTINE  41 

lime  be  developed.     The  latter  is  less  stable  and  more  easily 
soluble  than  the  former. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  to  overcome  to  a  very  large 
extent  the  tendency  to  burn  the  foliage  by  adding  an  amount  of 
lime  equal  in  weight  to  the  arsenate  of  lime  used.  This  lime 
should  be  pure  CaO,  which  has  been  previously  slacked  with 
water,  so  that  when  added  it  will  really  be  in  the  hydroxide  con- 
dition of  Ca(0H)2.  Moreover,  when  calcium  arsenate  is  used 
in  combination  with  lime-sulfur  there  is  usually  no  trouble 
from  burning.  And  lastly,  the  lime  or  calcium  is  so  much 
cheaper  than  lead  that  we  get  a  product  that  costs  the  grower 
much  less. 

Lime-sulfur  is  used  principally  by  the  small  fruit  grower  as 
a  dormant  spray  on  such  fruits  as  currants  and  gooseberries.  It 
is  one  of  those  substances  which  is  at  the  same  time  an  insecti- 
cide and  a  fungicide.  Most  groAvers  use  the  commercial  material 
which  comes  as  a  clear,  amber-colored  liquid,  which  mixes 
readily  in  water.  Where  large  quantities  are  used  it  may  pay 
to  manufacture  it  at  home,  but  ordinarily  the  best  way  is  to  buy 
it  already  prepared.  The  strength  will  vary  considerably  even 
from  the  same  manufacturer,  so  that  the  only  really  satisfactory 
way  to  determine  how  much  of  it  to  use  with  a  given  amount  of 
water  is  to  test  it  with  a  hydrometer,  a  little  instrument  for 
measuring  the  density  of  liquids.  For  a  dormant  spray  the 
diluted  lime-sulfur  should  give  a  reading  of  1.03  on  the  hydrom- 
eter, which  means  one  gallon  of  the  concentrated  solution  to 
about  eight  gallons  of  water. 

Lime-sulfur  in  the  dry  or  powdered  form  is  coming  into  very 
general  use  as  this  text  is  being  written.  It  has  much  to  com- 
mend it,  particularly  ease  of  handling.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is, 
as  yet,  more  expensive  than  the  liquid  and  has  some  other  short- 
comings. These  may  be  corrected  with  longer  experience  on 
the  part  of  manufacturers. 

Nicotine  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  and  widely  used  of 
the  contact  poisons  for  summer  use.  It  is  a  tobacco  product  and 
comes  in  the  form  of  a  rather  thick,  dark  brown  and  ill-smelling 
liquid,  chemically  the  sulfate  of  nicotine.     This  mixes  readily 


42  SPRAYING  MATERIALS  AND  APPARATUS 

with  water  and  should  be  used  at  the  rate  of  one-half  pint  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water. 

Bordeaux  Mixture. — Of  all  the  fungicides  used  for  the  fruits 
under  discussion  Bordeaux  is  the  most  popular  and  the  most 
efficient,  and  in  actual  practice  it  is  rare  that  any  other  is  used 
as  a  summer  spray. 

The  most  common  formula  at  present  is  4  pounds  of  cop- 
per sulfate,  4  pounds  of  rock  lime,  and  50  gallons  of  water. 
Where  any  quantity  is  to  be  used  the  most  satisfactory  way  is 
to  prepare  stock  solutions,  as  they  are  called,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  season.  For  this  purpose  a  50-gallon  cask  is  usually  used 
for  the  lime  and  another  for  the  copper  sulfate.  The  lime  is 
prepared  by  weighing  out  50  pounds  of  rock  lime,  slacking  it, 
and  then  straining  it  into  this  cask  and  adding  enough  water  to 
make  50  gallons. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  copper  sulfate  solution  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  50  pounds  of  the  material  in  50  gallons  of  water. 
This  can  be  done  most  quickly  by  putting  the  copper  sulfate  in 
a  bag  and  suspending  this  in  the  top  of  the  cask  of  water.  These 
two  stock  solutions  should  be  placed  in  a  convenient  place  and 
kept  tightly  covered  to  prevent  evaporation  and  to  keep  leaves, 
etc.,  which  might  clog  the  spray  machinery,  from  getting  in. 

When  it  is  desired  to  prepare  a  cask  of  Bordeaux  mixture 
for  use,  stir  the  stock  solution  of  lime  and  measure  out  four 
gallons  into  a  cask  and  add  enough  water  to  make  twenty-five 
gallons.  Put  four  gallons  of  the  copper  sulfate  solution  in  an- 
other cask  and  add  twenty-one  gallons  of  water.  Then  pour 
these  two  diluted  solutions  into  the  spray  cask,  agitate  thor- 
oughly and  apply.  Usually  arsenate  of  lead  is  added  for  chew- 
ing, and  sometimes  nicotine  for  sucking  insects,  so  that  one  appli- 
cation takes  care  of  all  three  types  of  pests. 

Bucket  Pump. — Turning  now  to  spraying  apparatus,  the 
simplest  outfit  that  can  be  used  with  any  satisfaction  is  the 
bucket  pump  shown  in  figure  18.  It  is  entirely  efiicient  and 
will  do  good  work ;  is  simple  in  construction  and  costs  relatively 
little,  from  five  to  seven  dollars  buying  a  good  one.     But  it  is 


POWER  OUTFIT 


43 


inconvenient  to  carry  about,  has  no  agitator,  so  that  solid  ma- 
terials like  Bordeaux  mixture  are  likely  to  settle  out;  and  it 
works  slowly. 

Knapsack  Sprayer. — Next  to  this  in  cost,  efficiency  and  gen- 
eral desirability  would  come  the  knapsack  sprayer  shown  in 
figure  140.  This  is  a  very  efficient  little  machine,  being  espe- 
cially satisfactory  for  rough  land,  or  for  garden  conditions 
where  one  wants  to  get  about  among  vegetables  in  doing  his 
spraying.  It  is  rather  heavy  to  carry  when  full,  works  some- 
what slowly,  and  has  an  unpleasant  habit  of  slopping  over  and 
wetting  the  operator  in  the 
small  of  the  back.  But  with 
care  this  latter  objection  can 
be  avoided  to  a  considerable 
extent.  For  a  half  acre  or 
tliereabouts,  especially  if  the 
plantation  is  on  a  side  hill,  h 
will  be  found  the  most  satis- 
factory machine  to  use. 

Barrel  Sprayer.  —  For 
somewhat  larger  plantations 
an  ordinary  barrel  outfit  may 
be  used.  It  is  possible,  with 
a  little  ingenuity,  to  equip  it 
with  various  attachments  so 
that  several  rows  of  straw- 
berries or  two  rows  of  grapes 
or  currants  may  be  sprayed  at 
one  time.  Or  it  may  be  used 
in  the  ordinary  way  with  two 
leads  of  hose  as  shown  in 
figure  19. 

Power  Outfit. — Where  an  orchard  power  sprayer  is  available 
it  may  be  used  for  any  of  these  plantations  much  as  has  just 
been  described  for  the  barrel  outfit.  Sometimes  they  may  be 
used  in  a  vineyard  even  if  the  rows  are  too  close  together  to  admit 
of  the  sprayer  being  driven  between  them ;  the  rows  must  be 


Fig.  i8, — Bucket  pump.  A  simple  but 
efficient  little  pump  for  small  operations. 
Unhandy  to  move  about. 


44 


SPRAYING  MATERIALS  AND  APPARATUS 


sprayer  for  use  in  strawberry  fields.      It  is  a  traction  type,  the  power  being 
generated  by  the  turning  of  the  wheels. 

rather  short,  so  lon^  leads  of  small  hose  may  be  used  and  carried 
down  each  row. 

Spraying  Several  Rows  at  a  Time. — Where  lare:e  plantations 
are  to  be  sprayed  special  types  of  spraying-  apparatns  are  often 


QUESTIONS  45 

used.  For  strawberries  a  sprayer  similar  to  the  one  shown  in 
figure  20,  Avhich  will  spray  several  rows  at  once,  is  the  most 
popular  type.  For  grapes  a  power  sprayer  which  is  driven  be- 
tween two  rows  of  the  vineyard  and  sprays  both  rows  at  once 
is  commonly  used. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What   spray    materials   are   most   commonly   used    in    your    section    for 

insect  control? 

2.  Discuss  arsenate  of  lead. 

3.  Has  arsenate  of  lime  been  used  in  your  section  at  all?   What  have  been 

the  results? 

4.  What  type  of  lime-sulfur  is  used  in  your  section? 

5.  Have  you  seen  nicotine   products  used   for   spraying   in  your  section? 

For  what  insects  w^ere  they  used? 

6.  Describe  the  making  of  Bordeaux  mixture.     Would  it  be  u.seful  in  fight- 

ing the  strawberry  leaf-roller?     Why? 

7.  What    sort    of    spraj'ing    apparatus    is    most    commonly    used    in    your 

section  ? 

8.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  knapsack  sprayer  used?   Is  it  a  good  kind  of  pump  ? 


CHAPTER  VII 
CANNING,  PRESERVING  AND  MARKETING 

It  is  not  the  iiiteution  to  introduce  here  an  extended  dis- 
cnssion  of  the  question  of  presei-ving  and  marketing  small  f  niits. 
To  do  that  at  all  adequately  would  require  a  volume.  The  hope 
is  merely  to  suggest  the  importance  of  this  phase  of  the  subject, 
and  to  discuss  briefly  some  methods  which  may  prove  of  value. 
Failures  in  Marketing. — It  is  frequently  said  that  for  every 
man  who  can  market  a  crop  of  fruit  successfully  there  are  a 
dozen  who  can  grow  one.  This  is  probably  a  fair  estimate.  One 
explanation  of  this  state  of  affairs  is  doubtless  that  it  takes  busi- 
ness ability  to  market  a  crop  and  this  is  just  as  rare  (and  no 
more  rare)  among  farmers  as  among  men  in  the  dry-goods 
business  or  the  hardware  business.  One  man  in  the  dry-goods 
business  has  the  ability  to  conduct  it  successfully,  and  he  owns 
the  store,  while  the  other  five  or  ten  or  one  hundred  who  have 
not  the  ability  work  for  the  man  who  has.  If  as  large  a  propor- 
tion of  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  dry-goods  trade  tried  their 
hand  at  doing  the  marketing,  as  we  find  making  the  attempt  to 
do  the  marketing  among  farmers,  there  would  undoubtedly  be 
as  many  failures  in  the  marketing  of  shirt-waists  as  in  the 
marketing  of  strawberries. 

Another  reason  for  failures  in  marketing  fruit  is  undoubt- 
edly that  less  time  and  thought  have  so  far  been  expended  on  its 
special  problems,  and  the  young  man  who  grows  up  on  the  aver- 
age farm  receives  far  less  training  in  this  line  than  he  does  in 
cultivation  or  in  pruning  and  spraying. 

A  third  and  very  important  reason  for  the  large  number  of 
failures  in  marketing,  as  compared  to  growing  fruit,  is  the  fact 
that  one  is  dealing  with  a  very  perishable  product  which  must 
be  handled  quickly  and  in  which  mistakes  are  costly  and  cannot 
usually  be  remedied.  If  the  cultivating  has  been  neglected  so 
that  the  weeds  have  made  a  start,  more  labor  can  be  put  on  the 
46 


GRADE  THE  FRUIT  WELL  47 

plantation  and  the  mistake  rectified.  But  if  the  berries  have 
been  picked  while  wet  and  have  developed  mold,  there  is  nothing 
to  do  but  to  put  them  on  the  dump  and  begin  again. 

Make  a  Plan. — If  we  accept  all  this  as  sound  doctrine  it 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  first  step  for  the  small  fruit 
grower  to  take,  if  he  expects  to  succeed  in  marketing  his  crop, 
is  to  sit  down  and  try  to  definitely  and  constructively  lay  out  a 
plan  of  campaign,  beforehand  !  Do  not  wait  until  there  are  only 
one  hundred  berry  boxes  left  before  ordering  a  new  supply ;  dO' 
not  wait  until  the  berries  are  being  picked  to  decide  where  to 
ship  them ;  do  not  wait  until  the  glut  comes  to  speculate  on 
what  can  be  done  to  relieve  the  situation. 

Causes  of  Failure  and  Success. — The  following  are  some  of 
the  things  which  have  impressed  the  writer  as  being  the  cause 
of  the  success  of  some  growers  and  the  failure  of  others.  Some 
of  these  points  may  seem  unimportant ;  many  of  them  may  seem 
so  obvious  as  to  hardly  be  worth  mentioning ;  but  they  all  count 
and  most  of  them  count  largely  in  deciding  whether  the  receipts 
from  the  strawberries  are  so  meager  that  they  are  not  sufficient 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  plantation,  or  whether  they  are  so 
generous  that  the  grower  can  go  on  a  vacation  or  buy  that  truck 
he  has  been  wanting  so  long. 

1,  Grow  a  Good  Crop! — If  only  we  could  do  that,  half  or 
two-thirds  of  our  troubles,  perhaps  ninety-nine  per  cent,  of  them 
would  disappear.  It  is  so  easy  to  interest  a  cusromer  in  a  box 
of  fine  strawberries  or  a  basket  of  beautiful  grapes.  When  he 
once  becomes  interested  he  stays  so,  and  his  interest  grows. 
Moreover,  the  work  of  picking  and  packing  such  fruit  is  so  much 
less  than  it  is  with  the  crop  of  small,  unattractive  strawberries, 
or  the  crop  of  grapes  with  poor,  scraggy  bunches.  So  the  busi- 
ness gi-ower  keeps  all  this  in  mind  and  plans  beforehand  to 
spray  and  prane  and  cultivate  in  such  a  way  that  his  products 
will  make  friends  and  not  enemies  of  his  customers. 

2.  Grade  the  Fruit  Well. — This  is  somewhat  less  important 
with  small  fruits  than  with  apples,  for  example,  but  it  is  tre- 
mendously important  even  here.  A  medium-sized  strawberry, 
which  would  be  perfectly  satisfactory  if  all  the  rest  in  the  box 


48  CANNING,  PRESERVING  AND  MARKETING 

were  like  it,  will  wreck  your  trade  with  some  customers  if  it  is 
put  iu  a  box  along  with  some  large  berries. 

3.  Pack  the  Fruit  Well. — Do  uot  till  the  strawberry  boxes 
so  full  that  the  top  ones  are  mashed  iu  the  crate;  and  do  not 
have  them  so  loose  in  the  box  that  they  shake  to  a  mush  in  transit. 

4.  Put  Up  the  Fruit  Honestly. — There  is  less  chance,  per- 
haps, to  pack  a  box  of  strawberries  or  a  basket  of  grapes  dis- 
honestly than  a  barrel  of  apples,  but  it  can  be  done,  as  many  a 
disappointed  and  disgiisted  customer  can  testify.  Get  the  big 
berries  and  the  fine  clusters  of  grapes  (or  at  least  some  of  them) 
into  the  bottom  of  the  basket. 

5.  Use  Attractive  Packages. — A  little  extra  money  paid  for 
a  better  grade  of  baskets  will  be  more  than  made  up  by  the 
better  appearance  that  the  fruit  will  make  in  them,  and  the  bet- 
ter condition  in  which  they  will  carry  the  fruit  through  a  reduc- 
tion in  breakage.  For  a  retail  trade  some  really  attractive 
baskets  that  are  of  value  after  the  fruit  has  been  used  may 
be  justified. 

6.  Give  Good  Measure. — The  use  of  a  few  extra  berries  or 
an  extra  bunch  of  grapes  necessary  to  change  a  scant  measure  to 
a  generous  one  will  be  the  best  use  that  could  possibly  be  made 
of  that  amount  of  fruit.  Charge  it  up  to  the  advertising  account 
and  keep  up  the  practice. 

7.  Keep  the  low  grade  fruits  off  the  market  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. Or,  if  this  cannot  be  done,  place  thorn  on  a  dilferent 
market  and  at  least  in  difi^erent  packages.  With  some  markets 
there  is  undoubtedly  a  call  for  these  poorer  grades  at  lower 
prices,  but  the  usual  effect  of  putting  poor  and  good  fruit  on  the 
same  market,  even  though  they  are  not  mixed  in  the  same  pack- 
ages, is  to  depress  the  price  for  the  good  fruits.  Some  one  has 
said  that  the  reason  the  northwestern  apple  growers  have  been 
so  successful  in  working  up  a  good  market  for  their  fruit  and 
in  getting  high  prices  for  it,  and  in  making  people  think  that 
they  grew  only  first-class  fruit,  was  because  they  had  discovered 
that  a  customer  would  pay  more  money  for  two  good  apples 
than  he  would  for  the  same  two  good  apples  with  two  poor  ones 
thrown  in.    Most  of  us  insist  on  giving  our  customers  these  two 


PROVIDE  FOR  THE  GLUT  49 

extra  poor  apples  or  strawberries,  and  whether  we  put  them  into 
the  same  package  or  not  the  eliect  is  bad.  If  these  grades  could 
be  worked  up  into  some  manufactured  product  it  would  be  the 
ideal  solution  of  the  question,  conserving  the  food  supply,  get- 
ting it  into  an  excellent  form  for  market  and  not  discour- 
aging our  customers  by  giving  them  these  poor,  unattractive, 
disappointing  specimens. 

8.  Early  Marketing. — Get  the  fruit  into  the  market  early  in 
the  day.  This  applies  principally  to  the  local  market,  but  is 
very  important.  The  dealer  will  be  interested  in  a  crate  of 
strawberries  at  7  o'clock  a.m.  and  will  pay  a  good  price  for  them, 
when  he  might  not  look  at  them  at  11  o'clock.  Besides,  the  fruit 
arrives  in  better  condition  in  the  cool  of  the  morning  than  it 
does  in  the  lieat  of  the  day. 

9.  Go  Regularly  to  Market. — If  your  dealer  knows  that  he 
can  rely  on  your  team  coming  in  every  morning  or  every  other 
moniing,  he  can  plan  his  purchases  and  will  buy  from  you 
regularly,  while  if  the  deliveries  are  irregular  he  will  patronize 
some  other  producer. 

10.  Have  regular  customers  among  the  dealers.  Do  not 
go  to  one  store  on  Monday  and  another  on  Tuesday  and  a  third 
one  on  Wednesday.  If  your  fniit  is  poor  this  may  sometimes 
be  necessary  in  order  not  to  meet  your  reputation,  but  it  is 
fatal  to  the  best  success. 

11.  Wholesale  and  Retail  Prices. — Do  not  attempt  to  do  a 
wholesale  and  a  retail  business  in  the  same  town,  or  if  this  is 
done  sell  to  the  dealer  enough  lower  so  that  he  can  make  a  fair 
profit  and  still  sell  at  the  retail  price  you  are  making.  If  a 
dealer  is  handling  your  berries  and  a  customer  comes  in  and 
asks,  "  What  is  the  price  of  those  Sea  View  Fann  berries  ?  " 
"  Twenty-five  cents  a  box."  "  Why,  I  bought  some  for  twenty 
cents  yesterday  from  their  wagon  !  "  This  dealer  will  buy  some- 
where else  next  time. 

12.  Provide  for  the  glut  before  it  comes.  The  best  way  to 
do  this  is  to  keep  the  fruit  off  the  glutted  market,  and  the  ideal 
plan  for  keeping  it  off  is  to  use  it  in  manufacturing.  Can  it ; 
make  jam  of  it!     This  puts  it  in  a  form  in  which  it  can  be 

4 


50  CANNING,  PRESERVING  AND  MARKETING 

marketed  at  leisure  and  the  ettect  on  the  market  of  this  with- 
drawal of  fruit  is  to  decrease,  instead  of  to  increase  the  glut. 
There  is  no  question  that  this  method  of  disposing  of  surplus 
fruits,  and  especially  small  fruits,  is  destined  to  see  a  remark- 
able development  in  the  near  future. 

13.  Cater  to  whims  of  the  local  market  unless  they  are  en- 
tirely unreasonable.  If  it  prefers  the  Sample  to  the  Glen  Mary 
strawberry  let  it  have  Sample.  And  if  it  wants  24-quart  crates 
instead  of  32-quart  crates,  give  it  the  24-quart  size.  If  it  would 
rather  have  black  raspberries  than  red  ones,  grow  black  rasp- 
berries, even  though  you  yourself  prefer  the  reds ;  and  if  it  insists 
on  using  unripe  currants  for  jelly  because  they  "  jell  "  better, 
pick  your  currants  before  they  are  ripe,  even  though  you  know 
that  they  would  ^'  jell  "  just  as  well  and  taste  much  better  if 
they  were  ripe. 

14.  Do  some  Advertising. — Just  what  this  shall  be  depends 
on  circumstances.  If  one  has  a  wide  line  of  kinds  and  varieties 
of  small  fruits  (as  well  as  some  other  fruits)  the  problem  is  far 
different  from  that  presented  by  a  single  crop,  as  strawberries. 
But  even  in  the  latter  case  there  are  many  things  that  will  help 
to  move  the  crop.  One  of  the  simplest  things  is  to  put  out  a 
road-side  sign.  If  there  is  to  be  a  succession  of  fruits  for  sale 
this  may  well  take  the  form  of  a  regiilar  bulletin  board ;  but  if 
not,  a  good-sized  sign  saying  "  Strawberries  "  will  stop  many  a 
customer.  If  the  spot  is  shady  some  boxes  of  fruit  may  bo 
placed  near  the  sign  as  a  bait. 

It  is  always  desirable,  if  the  fruit  is  superior,  to  let  the 
buyer  know  where  it  comes  from.  Figure  21  shows  how  one 
strawberry  grower,  Mr.  Chas.  W.  Mann,  of  Methuen,  Massachu- 
setts, does  this.  Over  every  box  of  berries  is  pasted  a  strip  of 
white  paper  on  which  is  printed  the  one  word  "  Mann."  And 
this  has  come  to  be  a  trade-mark  of  great  value.  A  similar  sys- 
tem is  common  in  many  sections  of  the  west,  notably  in  Cali- 
fornia. Labels  on  the  crates  accomplish  a  similar  object, 
although  not  so  well. 

If  the  operations  are  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale  to  warrant 
it,  a  small  advertisement  in  the  newspaper  is  very  effective  and 
will  help  the  grower  in  his  dealings  with  the  grocer  or  fruit- 


MANUFACTURED  PRODUCTS 


51 


store  man,  for  the  annouuceinent  can  state  that  these  fruits  can 
be  had  at  the  Boston  Pruit  Store  or  the  Central  Grocery. 

If  some  sort  of  printed  matter  can  be  introduced  into  the 
package  it  may  be  the  means  of  making  many  a  sale,  and  always 
has  the  effect  of  leading  the  consumer  to  realize  the  fact  that  he 
is  dealing  with  a  progressive  grower  who  has  ideas  and  usually 
grows  better  fruit  than  his  neighbors.  This  printed  matter  may 
take  various  forms ;  it  may  be  merely  the  name  of  the  farm,  or 
it  may  bo  a  recipe  for  canning  or  making  fruit  butter ;  or  it  may 


Fig.  21. — Display  traj's  of  strawberries  used  by  Chas.  W.  Mann,  of  Methuen,  Mass.  A 
good  method  of  marketing  fine  strawberries  locally.  A  strip  of  white  paper  with  the  word 
"Mann"  printed  on  it  is  pasted  over  each  box. 

be  a  more  ambitious  effort  in  the  way  of  a  leaflet.  Anything 
that  attracts  the  attention  of  the  consumer  to  that  particular 
grojrer  avrJ  It  is  product  will  he  worth  while. 

Manufactured  Products. — Eeference  has  been  made  in  this 
discussion  to  the  manufacture  of  fruits  into  various  products. 
Whether  the  grower  is  producing  for  market  or  merely  for  home 
use  this  question  of  canning  and  preserving  and  manufacturing 
is  one  which  deserves  attention.  If  it  is  merely  a  question  of 
supplying  the  home  table  with  fruit  in  some  form  for  the  entire 
season,  the  question  of  just  what  forms  shall  be  chosen  is  an 
interesting  one  (particularly  to  the  "  consuming  "  side  of  the 
family)  and  ought  to  be  studied  out  carefully.    It  is  a  great  mis- 


52  CANNING,  PRESERVING  AND  MARKETING 

take  to  stop  with  merely  canned  strawberries  and  currant  jelly, 
when  one  might  have  blackberry  jam  and  grape  butter  and 
strawberry  sunshine  and  grape  juice  and  spiced  currants  and  a 
dozen  other  things. 

If  the  canning  of  fruits  and  making  of  fruit  products  are  to 
be  made  a  commercial  matter,  and  a  large  part  of  the  crop  is  to 
be  put  on  the  market  in  this  way,  then  the  problem  is  worthy  of 
still  more  study,  for  there  is  more  at  stake.  For  the  right  type 
of  trade  there  is  a  splendid  business  for  anyone  who  will  pro- 
duce a  good  and  varied  line  of  fruit  products. 

Whether  the  fruit  is  put  up  for  home  consumption  or  for 
sale,  it  often  pays  to  get  away  from  the  orthodox  and  established 
ways  and  introduce  something  new,  or  at  least  something  less 
common.  They  may  be  no  better  than  the  standard  articles,  but 
they  are  interesting.     Here  are  a  few  suggestions. 

Currant  Jelly. — Pick  the  currants  over  carefully,  wash  thor- 
oughh'  and  put  in  a  kettle  with  just  enough  water  to  cover  them. 
Next  squeeze  the  currants  very  thoroughly  with  the  hands  or 
jelly  press,  at  the  same  time  removing  the  stems.  Place  the 
kettle  on  the  stove  and  boil  for  three  minutes.  Pour  into  a  jelly 
bag  and  drain.  Measure  the  juice  and  boil  for  five  minutes; 
then  add  an  equal  quantity  by  measure  of  hot  sugar.  Boil  until 
the  jelly  hardens  on  a  cold  plate,  pour  into  glasses  and  store  as 
any  jelly.  This  makes  a  jelly  that  is  beautiful  in  color  and  is 
without  any  of  the  strong  flavor  which  is  sometimes  found  in 
currant  jelly. 

Canned  Raspberries. — Fill  clean  jars  with  freshly  picked  fruit. 
Pour  over  it  a  boiling  syrup  of  the  density  to  suit  the  taste  of  the 
family.  For  most  people  one  part  sugar  to  two  and  one-half 
parts  water,  by  weight  or  volume,  is  best.  Seal  jars  and  immerse 
in  boiling  water  for  twenty  minutes,  then  remove  and  store. 

Grapye  Juice. — Pick  the  grapes  from  the  stems,  wash  them 
and  put  one  heaping  pint  of  the  grapes  and  three-fourths  cup 
of  sugar  into  sterilized  two-quart  jars.  Pill  the  jars  with  boil- 
ing water  and  seal.  Turn  the  jars  over  several  times  until  the 
sugar  is  dissolved.  Store  and  use  as  wanted,  straining  off  juice 
and  diluting  to  suit  the  taste. 

Grape  Butter. — (Recipe  taken  from  Prof.  W.  W.   Cheno- 


FRUIT  AS  FOOD  53 

weth's  bulletin  on  "  The  Home  Manufacture  of  Fruit  Prod- 
ucts." )     Ten  pounds  grapes ;  1  pint  water ;  1  pound  sugar. 

Grape  butter  is  most  economically  made  as  a  by-product  of 
grape  juice.  Also  if  made  as  a  by-product  there  is  less  danger 
of  crystals  fonning  in  the  butter. 

Stem  the  grapes  and  wash  thoroughly.  Cook  in  the  water 
at  the  simmering  point  until  the  skins  slip  from  the  berries. 
Pour  into  a  colander  or  sieve  and  allow  the  juice  to  drain  off. 
This  juice  should  be  bottled  and  used  as  grape  juice.  Return 
the  pulps  and  skins  to  the  cooking  utensil,  add  one-half  pint  of 
water  and  cook  at  boiling  point  until  the  berries  are  in  rags. 
Again  transfer  to  colander  or  seive.  Rub  the  pulp  through  and 
return  to  the  cooking  utensil.  Cook  at  boiling  point  for  live  or 
ten  minutes,  add  the  sugar  and  cook  until  of  desired  consistency, 
which  should  be  thick  enough  to  spread  well.  If  spices  are  de- 
sired these  may  be  added  just  before  removing  from  the  fire. 

Have  fruit  jars  clean  and  sterile,  put  the  butter  while  boil- 
ing hot  into  these  and  seal  at  once. 

If  a  tart  butter  is  desired  to  be  used  as  a  relish  omit 
the  sugar. 

The  skins  and  seeds  may  be  used  for  making  a  fair  grade  of 
jelly.  If  gTapes  ai-e  expensive  and  apples  are  cheap  add  one- 
third  as  much  apple  pulp  as  grape  pulp. 

Fruit  as  Food. — Lastly  in  this  attempt  to  dispose  of  the 
fruit  crop  satisfactorily,  all  who  are  interested  ought  to  join  in 
an  effort  to  realize  themselves,  and  to  make  the  consumer  realize, 
that  fruit  is  a  food  and  a  food  of  value,  as  well  as  having  many 
other  valuable  characteristics.  We  have  too  long  been  satisfied 
to  regard  it  as  a  luxury ;  something  which  looks  good  and  tastes 
fine,  but  can  easily  be  dispensed  with.  Our  strongest  argument 
in  the  past  has  been  that  fruit  is  healthful,  that  it  regulates  the 
processes  of  the  human  system.  Possibly  this  is  still  the  great- 
est reason  for  using  it,  but  we  certainly  have  a  much  stronger 
case  with  most  consumers  if  we  can  show  them  that  raspberries 
are  as  much  a  food  as  potatoes,  and  better  in  some  ways.  Too 
many  people  in  times  of  stress  are  prone  to  take  patent  medicines 
to  regulate  the  system  and  fall  back  on  beans  and  potatoes  as 
foods,  when  they  might  get  both  regulation  and  food  in  grapes 


54 


CANNING,  PRESERVING  AND  MARKETING 


or  raspberries.  If  any  one  doubts  the  real  food  value  of  fruits 
let  him  study  the  following  table,  and  others  like  it,  giving  the 
comparative  food  value  in  calories  or  units  of  energy  of  differ- 
ent fruits,  with  milk  and  potatoes  for  comparison : 

Composition  of  Fresh  Fruits,  Compared  with  Milk  and  Potatoes 


Energy  value 

per  pound 

Calories 


Milk 

Potatoes 

Blackberries 

Currants 

Grapes 

Red  raspberries .  . 
Black  raspberries. 
Strawberries 


Water 
Per  cent 

Protein 

Per  cent 

Fat 
Percent 

Sugars 

and 
starches 
Per  cent 

87.1 

3.4 

3.9 

4.85 

78.3 

2.2 

0.1 

18.     { 

11. 

86 

1.3 

1.0 

85 

1.5 

12.5 

77 

1.3 

1.6 

19. 

86 

1.0 

12.5 

84 

1.7 

1.0 

12.5 

90 

1.0 

.6 

7.5 

320 
302  as  purchased. 
378  edible  portion. 

262 

260 

450 

250 

300 

177 


E'nergy  Value  of  Dried  Fruits,  Compared  with  Eggs  and  Beef 

Egga     596 

Beef — hind  quarter  1 100 

Raisins   1605 

Prunes   1400 

Dried    apples    1350 

Dried  raspberries 1700 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Have  you  seen  some  examples  of  good  ana  poor  methods  of  marketing 

in  your  section?     Describe  them. 

2.  How  important  is  the  grading  of  fruit?    Give  examples  you  have  seen  of 

poor  grading;  of  good. 

3.  What  do  you  consider  is  the  best  use  of  low-grade  fruits?     How  have 

you  seen  them  used  in  your  section? 

4.  Discuss  the  importance  of  good  measure  in  selling. 

5.  Compare  wholesale  and  retail  markets. 

G.  Describe  the  best  retail  market  you  ever  saw. 

7.  How  would  you  avoid  gluts  in  markets? 

8.  Describe  any  advertising  of  fruit  that  you  have  seen  done. 

9.  What  do  you   consider   the  best  product  made  from  grapes  from  the 

point  of  marketing  the  crop? 

10.  Give  a  list  of  all   the  different  ways  of  putting  up  strawberries   for 

winter  use  that  you  have  ever  seen  tried. 

11.  Did  you  ever  consider  that  fruits  had  any  great  value  as  foods? 

12.  Compare  small  fruits  with  other  food  products  as  to  their  food  value. 


STRAWBERRIES 


CHAPTER  VIII 
STRAWBERRY  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION 

Strawberries  succeed  well  on  a  wide  range  of  soils ;  that  is, 
some  variety  or  varieties  may  be  found  Avhicli  will  succeed  on 
almost  any  type  of  soil  except,  perhaps,  the  very  stiff  clays. 
But  more  varieties  will  be  successful,  and  greater  success  will 
be  achieved,  on  some  of  the  medium  and  lighter  soils. 

Lightness  of  soil  tends  to  hasten  the  maturity  of  the  plant 
and  fruit,  and  is  therefore  especially  desirable  in  sections  where 
earliness  is  important.  On  the  other  hand,  light  soils  suffer 
more  from  drought,  which  is  almost  sure  to  be  felt  more  or  less 
during  any  season,  and  very  light  soils  at  least  are  not  likely  to 
give  as  high  quality  berries. 

The  heavier  soils  are  more  difficult  to  prepare  satisfactorily 
and  to  keep  in  good  physical  condition,  and  they,  too,  often 
suffer  from  drought  either  because  they  hare  not  been  well 
prepared  and  are  therefore  not  in  condition  to  hold  moisture,  or 
else,  during  the  harvesting  of  the  crop,  because  the  trampling  of 
the  pickers  has  made  the  soil  compact  and  hard. 

The  Best  Soils. — On  the  whole,  soils  ranging  from  what 
would  be  technically  classed  as  a  sandy  loam  to  a  very  light 
clay  loam  will  probably  best  suit  the  strawberry  grower  if  he 
can  get  them.  In  case  he  is  in  the  business  in  a  fairly  large 
way  it  may  pay  him  to  select  a  lighter  soil  on  which  to  grow 
his  early  varieties  and  have  another  bed  on  heavier  soil  for  his 
main  crop  and  later  sorts. 

Slope  or  exposure  is  not  usually  considered  very  much  by 
the  strawberry  gTower.  The  bed  should  always  have  enough 
slope  in  some  direction  to  carry  off  the  surface  water,  since 
standing  water  is  fatal,  and  even  fairly  well-drained  soils,  if 
they  are  level,  are  likely  to  suffer  in  this  way  in  winter  and  early 
spring.  Beyond  this  requirement  for  drainage,  slope  is  rarely 
thought  of  in  selecting  a  site  for  the  strawberry  bed,  yet  it  is  a 
question  whether  it  might  not  be  profitably  considered  in  some 

57 


58 


STRAWBERRY  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION 


cases  at  least.  For  example,  where  earliness  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance, a  considerable  slope  to  the  south  may  mean  several  days' 
diiference  in  the  ripening  of  the  berries.  Conversely  when  one 
wishes  to  get  his  berries  on  the  market  as  late  as  possible,  a 
northern  slope  is  desirable.  It  is  surprising  how  slight  a  slope 
will  make  a  difference  in  the  waraith  of  the  soil  and  therefore 
in  the  maturity  of  the  crop. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  western  or  southwestern  slope,  par- 
ticularly if  it  is  at  all  steep,  is  objectionable  because  it  subjects 


us  grown  by  the  matted-row  system 


young  peach  orchard. 


the  bed  to  the  hot  afternoon  sun  which  transpires  more  moisture 
from  the  leaves  and  evaporates  more  from  the  soil. 

Preventing  Damage  from  Frost. — In  those  sections  where 
frost  is  likely  to  cause  damage  at  blossoming  time,  and  this 
includes  many  of  the  best  strawberry  sections,  the  question  of 
elevation  and  slope  in  reference  to  their  effect  on  frosts  ought  to 
be  considered.  Sometimes  the  only  thing  to  do  is  to  accept  the 
danger  because  the  advantages  of  the  lower  and  flatter  lands  in 
fertility  and  water-holding  capacity  more  than  offset  the  frost 
danger  (Fig.  22).  But  strawberries  are  so  peculiarly  liable  to 
damage  from  frosts  at  the  blossoming  period,  being  flat  upon  the 


ROTATION  PRINCIPLES  59 

ground  and  the  blossoms,  of  course,  very  tender,  that  wherever 
possible  the  grower  ought  to  select  a  site  which  is  reasonably 
free  from  this  danger. 

Fertility  of  soil  is  always  very  desirable.  Some  authorities 
go  so  far  as  to  say  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  the  soil  too 
fertile  for  the  best  results,  and  this  is  probably  true.  It  is 
almost  impossible.  Certainly  more  strawberry  beds  suffer  from 
the  soil  not  being  fertile  enough  than  from  its  being  too  fertile. 
The  fertility  ought  to  be  of  the  lasting  kind  and  ought  to  extend 
well  down  into  the  soil,  that  is,  it  is  not  possible  to  make  the 
soil  satisfactorily  fertile  by  the  application  of  a  large  amount  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  or  other  relatively  quick-acting  fertilizer,  on  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  What  is  needed  is  the  incorporation  of  a 
generous  amount  of  humus,  and  preferably  humus  carrying  a 
large  amount  of  nitrogenous  materials  (as,  for  example,  barn- 
yard manure  or  clover  sod),  and  the  working  of  this  well  down 
into  the  soil  so  that  one  has  a  surface  soil  from  eight  inches  to  a 
foot  in  depth  which  is  well  filled  with  these  materials.  For  this 
reason  the  preparation  of  a  soil  for  a  strawberry  bed  ought  to 
begin  at  least  a  year  before  it  is  intended  to  set  the  bed,  and 
preferably  several  years  before. 

Rotation  Principles. — 'Where  one  is  permanently  in  the  busi- 
ness of  growing  strawberries  this  preparation  of  the  soil  may 
well  take  the  form  of  a  definite  rotation  of  crops  such  as  is 
practiced  by  our  best  general  farmers.  Just  what  crops  shall  be 
included  in  this  rotation  will,  of  course,  vary  greatly  according 
to  the  other  lines  of  farming  in  which  the  grower  is  engaged. 
But  there  are  two  or  three  general  principles  which  ought  always 
to  be  considered  in  arranging  these  rotations. 

1.  The  year  previous  to  the  setting  of  the  bed  the  land  ought 
to  be  planted  to  some  hoed  crop,  and  the  more  hoeing  this  crop 
requires,  the  more  thoroughly  it  has  to  be  cultivated,  the  better. 
The  advantages  from  this  are  that  by  the  clean  cultivation  all 
weeds  on  the  block  will  be  thoroughly  subdued,  and  that  while 
there  will  be  plenty  of  humus  left  in  the  soil,  it  will  not  be  too 
"  raw."  This  latter  point  is  vital,  since  if  there  is  any  great 
quantity  of  very  slightly  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil 


60  STRAWBERRY  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION 

when  the  strawberries  are  set,  such  as  would  be  the  case,  for 
example,  if  a  grass  sod  or  a  liberal  dressing  of  barnyard  manure 
had  just  been  plowed  under,  there  is  almost  certain  to  be  serious 
trouble  with  white  grubs,  which  flourish  under  these  conditions. 
Hence  the  need  of  the  cultivated  crop  preceding  the  strawberry 
crop,  and  if  barnyard  manure  is  to  be  applied  (at  least,  unless 
it  is  very  well  rotted )  let  it  be  used  on  this  preceding  crop. 

2.  Somewhere  in  the  rotation,  and  preferably  not  more  than 
two  years  ahead  of  the  strawberry  crop,  there  ought  to  be  some 
sort  of  a  hay  crop,  and  the  more  clover  this  hay  can  have  in  it, 
the  better.  The  ideal  plan  is  to  plow  down  the  sod  for  the  crop 
preceding  the  strawberries. 

3.  At  least  three  and  preferably  four  years  ought  to  elapse 
between  strawberry  crops.  This  helps  to  keep  down  fungous 
and  insect  pests  in  the  plantation,  and  insures  that  the  soil  shall 
get  back  into  good  shape  as  to  fertility  and  physical  condition, 
that  it  shall  "  get  some  strawberry  back  into  it,"  as  the 
growers  say. 

Good  Rotations. — With  these  principles  in  mind  almost  any- 
one can  get  up  a  satisfactory  rotation  to  suit  his  own  conditions. 
The  following  will  be  found  satisfactory  for  many  conditions: 

1.  Plow  up  the  old  strawberry  bed  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  crop  is  harvested  and  sow  buckwheat  (or  cowpeas  in  the 
South).  If  the  best  results  to  the  soil  are  to  be  secured  this 
crop  ought  to  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  land  and  be  ploM'ed 
under,  but  if  it  makes  a  good  seed  crop  and  the  owner  is  anxious 
to  do  so,  the  crop  may  be  harvested  and  the  straw  returned  to  the 
field  to  be  plowed  in.  It  is  surprising,  though,  how  insignificant 
the  same  crop  of  straw  looks  when  one  gets  it  back  on  the  land 
after  it  has  been  threshed,  as  compared  to  its  appearance  before 
it  is  cut. 

Some  growers  make  a  practice  of  growing  late  cabbages  or 
some  such  cultivated  crop  following  the  turning  down  of  the 
strawberry  plants,  that  is,  the  same  season  that  the  last  crop  of 
berries  is  harvested.  This  gives  some  revenue,  but  usually  does 
not  result  in  quite  as  good  preparation  for  the  succeeding 
strawberry  crops. 


GOOD  ROTATIONS  61 

2.  Keplow  the  land  that  autumn  or  the  following  spring  and 
plant  a  crop  of  corn.  Among  other  fertilizers  applied  to  this 
corn  crop  ought  to  be  some  lime.  For  the  lighter  and  more  typi- 
cal strawberry  soils  the  gi'ound  limestone  should  be  used  at  the 
rate  of  two  tons  per  acre,  but  if  one  has  a  heavy  soil  the  burned 
lime  (about  a  ton  per  acre)  will  be  best.  This  lime  is  primarily 
to  insure  a  good  growth  of  clover  following  the  com  and  not  that 
the  strawberries  need  an  alkaline  soil. 

3.  The  corn  crop  is  folloAved  by  hay  with  a  liberal  allow- 
ance of  clover  in  it.  In  many  sections  the  grass  seed  is  sown  in 
the  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  and  comes  along  so  as  to  give  a 
good  crop  of  hay  the  following  season.  In  sections  where  this 
plan  has  not  been  tried  the  writer  would  recommend  its  adop- 
tion, on  trial  at  least,  as  it  saves  a  whole  year  and  usually  gives 
most  excellent  results.  As  already  suggested,  this  hay  should 
be  strong  on  the  side  of  clover.  If  cattle  are  kept  on  the  farm, 
there  is,  of  course,  no  objection  to  this.  Even  where  the  hay  is 
used  for  horses  or  is  sold,  one  may  well  accept  the  objections  to 
the  hay  with  a  large  percentage  of  clover  in  it  in  return  for  the 
greater  good  to  the  succeeding  strawberry  crop.  The  following 
formula  will  be  found  good  in  sections  where  timothy  does  well, 
or  orchard  grass  may  be  substituted  for  it : 

Timothy 10  pounds 

Mammoth    Red    Clover    8  pounds 

Alsike  Clover   8  pounds 

Fancy  re-cleaned  Red  Top    4  pounds 

This  is  a  fairly  heavy  seeding  and  is,  of  course,  very  strong, 
at  least  double  the  usual  amount  of  clover. 

One  or  two  crops  of  hay  may  be  taken  off  the  field ;  that  is, 
the  field  is  used  for  hay  one  or  two  years,  depending  on  how 
anxious  the  owner  is  to  get  the  land  back  into  strawberries. 
Probably  somewhat  better  results  will  be  secured  if  two  years  are 
used  for  hay,  as  this  allows  time  for  the  production  of  a  greater 
humus  content  in  the  soil. 

4.  Plow  the  land  in  the  autumn  (unless  there  is  too  much 
slope  to  the  field)  and  grow  a  crop  of  beans  (or  soybeans)  or 
potatoes  the  next  year.     There  is  not  much  choice  between  these 


62  STRAWBERRY  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION 

two  crops  so  far  as  their  effect  on  the  strawberry  crop  is  con- 
cerned, bnt  probably  the  beans  will  give  slightly  better  results, 
as  they  will  gather  some  nitrogen  from  the  air.  They  will  also 
stand  somewhat  better  an  application  of  barnyard  manure  if  it 
is  desired  to  make  one. 

5.  Plow  the  land  again,  preferably  in  the  autumn  after  the 
beans  or  potatoes  are  harvested,  and  set  to  strawberries  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  from  which  one  or  more  crops  may  be  taken 
as  desired. 

This  rotation,  reduced  to  its  shortest  time,  will  take  five 
years,  if  we  allow  for  only  one  crop  of  strawberries  and  one  crop 
of  hay,  or  six  years  if  we  want  two  crops  of  berries.  This  is 
probably  none  too  long  for  the  best  crops  of  berries,  and  if  one 
has  sufficient  land  to  allow  of  its  use,  and  can  dispose  profitably 
of  the  other  crops,  the  plan  outlined,  or  some  slight  modifica- 
tion of  it,  might  well  be  adopted  by  most  strawberry  growers. 
It  might  be  shortened  a  year  by  omitting  the  crop  of  corn,  but 
the  results  would  not  be  so  good. 

Where,  for  any  reason,  one  cannot  adopt  a  rotation  of  crops, 
but  is  anxious  to  get  the  land  into  the  best  possible  condition, 
the  plan  is  sometimes  followed  of  devoting  a  whole  season  to  the 
growing  of  special  "  cover  crops  "  on  the  land  and  plowing  these 
under  one  after  another.  To  begin  with  a  crop  of  barley  may  be 
sown  in  the  spring  as  early  as  the  soil  is  in  good  condition.  When 
this  has  about  headed  out  it  may  be  plowed  under  and  a  crop  of 
buckwheat  sown,  and  if  any  barnyard  manure  is  available  this 
might  be  put  on  after  the  plowing  and  worked  in  with  a  disk 
harrow  before  the  buckwheat  is  sown.  Then  when  the  buck- 
wheat is  in  bloom  it,  in  turn,  may  be  plowed  under  and  a  crop 
of  rape  sown  and  this  allowed  to  stand  on  the  land  over  winter. 
The  advantage  of  closing  the  season  with  a  crop  of  rape  is  that 
it  is  not  injured  by  frosts  and  therefore  grows  all  through 
the  autumn.  Rye  could  be  used  instead,  since  it  will  all  be 
plowed  under  and  is  not  therefore  open  to  the  same  objection  as 
when  used  as  a  cover  crop  in  the  established  plantation,  viz., 
that  much  of  it  is  not  turaed  down  by  the  plow  and  therefore 
becomes  a  serious  weed  along  the  rows. 


STEPS  IN  PREPARING  SOIL  63 

Of  course,  the  list  of  crops  here  suggested  does  not  include 
any  leg-uminous  crop,  and  if  some  large-growing  crop  of  this 
class  (say  cowpeas  in  the  South,  or  soybeans  or  held  peas  in  the 
North)  can  be  included,  well  and  good.  The  objection  to  this 
comes  from  the  fact  that  these  latter  crops  do  not  grow  as  fast 
as  the  ones  mentioned  before,  and  the  grower  will  not  get  as 
many  crops  (and  therefore  not  as  much  humus)  into  his  soil. 

Steps  in  Preparing  Soil. — In  the  actual  preparation  of  the 
soil  for  planting  out  the  strawberry  bed  the  first  step  is  to  plow 
the  land  deeply.  Seven  or  eight  inches  is  a  common  depth,  and 
some  growers  prefer  ten  inches.  If  possible  the  plowing  ought 
to  be  done  in  the  autumn.  Where  the  land  slopes  so  much  that 
the  soil  would  wash,  or  where  for  any  other  reason  it  is  thought 
best  to  keep  the  land  over  winter  under  cover  of  a  crop,  the 
plowing  should  be  done  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil  is  in 
good  condition  to  work.  In  any  case,  the  plowing  should  be 
done  long  enough  before  the  plants  are  to  be  set  to  give  ample 
time  for  the  capillary  connection  to  be  re-established  between 
the  furrow  slice  and  the  subsoil.  If  the  weather  is  dry  and  the 
plowing  is  done  only  a  short  time  before  setting,  one  often  fails 
to  get  that  abundant  supply  of  moisture  in  the  top  soil  which  is 
essential  to  the  best  success  of  the  bed.  Early  plowing  helps 
greatly  in  this  respect. 

After  plowing,  the  land  should  be  disked  several  times.  The 
first  time  over  the  disk  harrow  should  always  be  run  the  same 
way  that  the  plowing  was  done  (Fig.  3),  as  this  turns  up  less 
of  the  materials  that  may  have  been  plowed  under.  The  num- 
ber of  times  necessary  to  go  over  the  piece  with  the  disk  harrow 
depends  largely  on  the  type  of  soil,  but  also  on  weather  condi- 
tions and  on  what  crop  preceded  the  berries.  It  is  not  possible 
to  do  the  soil  any  harm  by  too  many  diskings,  and  if  a  few  days 
are  allowed  to  intervene  between  the  diskings  more  effective 
work  can  be  done. 

After  the  disk,  various  types  of  other  harrows  may  be  used, 
depending  on  what  is  available  on  the  farm.  If  they  can  be 
had  the  spring-tooth  and  smoothing  harrows  (Fig.  4)  will  do 
excellent  work.    The  meeker  harrow,  shown  in  figure  6,  is  not  a 


64  STRAWBERRY  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION 

very  common  implement  on  farms,  but  when  it  can  be  bad  it  is 
ideal  to  follow  the  smoothing  harrow. 

The  "  final  touches  "  may  be  put  to  the  field  by  the  use  of 
either  the  brush  harrow  (Fig.  7)  or  the  planker  (Fig.  8). 
Either  of  these  can  be  made  at  home  and  one  or  both  of  them 
ought  to  be  on  every  farm. 

On  soils  which  are  very  light  and  loose  in  their  texture,  the 
use  of  a  roller  is  often  recommended,  and  where  such  soils  have 
to  be  used  this  is  sound  advice.  But  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
soils  which  require  rolling  ought  to  be  set  to  strawberries.  Cer- 
tainly they  cannot  be  expected  to  produce  maximum  crops.  If 
a  smooth  dnim  roller  is  used  it  should  be  followed  with  a  smooth- 
ing or  brush  harrow  to  reestablish  the  mulch.  Kougli  rollers  or 
sub-surface  packers  may  be  used.  These  produce  a  mulch  on 
the  surface. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  effect  does  a  light  soil  have  on  strawberries? 

2.  A  heavy  soil? 

3.  What  are  the  ideal  soils  for  strawberries? 

4.  Discuss  the  question  of  fertility  in  strawberry  soils. 

5.  Describe  a  good  rotation  of  crops  which  shall  include  strawberries  as 

one  of  the  crops. 

6.  How  would  you  prepare  for  a  crop  of  strawberries  when  only  one  year 

was  available  for  the  work? 

7.  Describe  the  actual  preparation  of  the  soil  for  a  crop  of  strawberries 

the  season  the  bed  is  set. 


CHAPTER  IX 
STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  AND  PLANTS 

I.    VARIETIES 

As  with  all  fruits,  the  question  of  getting  the  right  varieties 
is  of  crucial  importance  in  determining  the  success  of  the  straw- 
berry bed.  And  as  with  all  other  fruits,  it  is  extremely  difficult 
to  give  accurate  and  specific  advice  on  the  choice  of  varieties. 
But  we  have  this  additional  difficulty  with  strawberries,  that 
with  no  other  fruit  do  we  find  the  behavior  of  a  certain  variety 
varying  so  much  in  a  short  distance  or  limited  area.  A  variety 
may  do  well  on  one  farm  and  be  almost  an  absolute  failure  on 
another  farm  only  a  few  miles  away.  Of  course,  we  find  some 
varieties,  as  the  Sample,  Klondyke,  and  Senator  Dunlap,  that 
are  fairly  generally  successful,  much  more  so  than  some  other 
sorts  as  the  Marshall ;  but  we  have  only  a  few  varieties  that 
succeed  well  over  such  a  wide  area  as  the  Ben  Davis  or  Olden- 
burg apple,  or  the  Elberta  peach  or  the  Snyder  blackberry. 

For  this  reason  specific  varieties  will  be  left  out  of  consid- 
eration for  the  most  part  in  the  present  discussion  and  considera- 
tion given  to  the  general  characteristics  of  varieties. 

Variety  Characteristics. — The  following  are  some  of  the 
characteristics  which  ought  to  be  considered  in  choosing  ^arie- 
ties  for  setting : 

1.  Kind  or  Sex  of  Blossoms. — This  is  an  all-important  point. 
With  many  varieties  the  blossoms  contain  all  the  different  parts 
of  a  complete  flower,  i.e.,  the  green  calyx  on  the  outside ;  next 
the  white  petals  of  the  corolla  ;  next  the  stamens  which  are  each 
made  up  of  a  little  stalk  called  the  filament,  with  an  enlarge- 
ment in  its  end  called  the  anther;  and  lastly  the  pistils  in  the 
center  of  the  blossom.  In  this  case  there  are  a  large  number  of 
pistils,  one  for  each  seed  which  develops  on  the  surface  of  the 
ripened  strawberry.  It  is  the  province  of  the  stamens  to  produce 
the  pollen  grains,  which  are  contained  in  the  anther  and  which 
5  65 


66 


STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  AND  PLANTS 


pollinate  the  pistils.    Blossoms  of  this  type  are  said  to  be  perfect, 
or  bisexual. 

With  many  other  varieties  the  stamens  are  either  wanting 
altogether,  or  are  rudimentary  and  produce  no  pollen  of  any 
value.  Blossoms  of  this  type  are  called  imperfect  or  pistillate 
(Fig.  23).  In  varieties  with  these  last  two  types  of  blossoms, 
no  fruit,  or  very  little,  will  be  produced  unless  other  varieties 
having  pollen-bearing  blossoms  are  planted  with  them.  Just 
what  proportion  of  the  perfect-flowered  sorts  will  be  required  to 
fertilize  imperfect  sorts  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  abundance 
of  pollen  produced  and  also  on  the  length  of  tlie  blooming  period 


### 


Fig.  23. — Types  of  strawberry  blossoms.     Staminate  or  perfect  at  left,  pistillate  or  imper- 
fect at  right,  and  intermediate  type,  with  poor  stamens,  in  the  center. 

of  the  imperfect  sort.  Usually  one  row  of  the  perfect-flowered 
variety  to  three  of  the  imperfect  will  give  an  abundance  of  fruit. 
Where  the  imperfect  sort  has  a  very  long  season  of  blossoming  it 
may  be  wise  to  plant  two  pollenizers  with  it,  one  to  pollinate 
the  first  half  of  the  blossoms  and  the  other  to  pollinate  the  last 
half.  In  this  case  probably  the  best  plan  of  setting  will  be  one 
row  of  the  early  pollenizer,  two  rows  of  the  imperfect  variety, 
one  row  of  the  late  pollenizer,  two  rows  of  the  imperfect  variety, 
and  so  on. 

2.  The  Season  of  Ripening. — In  most  sections  the  local 
market  will  give  the  best  prices  for  very  early  berries,  and  the 
next  best  for  very  late  ones ;  while  the  intermediate  ones  com- 
mand less  money.  Other  things  being  equal,  therefore,  the 
grower  who  caters  to  his  local  market  should  get  the  most  money 
out  of  his  early  and  late  varieties.  But  of  course  "  other 
things  "  are  frequently  not  equal  and  the  productiveness  or  other 


FIRMNESS  OF  FLESH  67 

good  quality  or  a  mid-season  berry  may  make  it  the  most  profit- 
able of  all.  Season  of  ripening,  however,  is  always  of  impor- 
tance and  ought  to  be  carefully  considered. 

3.  Productiveness. — The  importance  of  this  needs  no  em- 
phasis, for  it  is  berries  that  we  are  after  and  lots  of  them,  and 
the  shy-bearing  variety  has  no  place  in  any  plantation,  least  of 
all  in  the  commercial  one.  A  point  on  productiveness  that  does 
need  emphasis,  however,  is  that  a  variety  may  be  very  produc- 
tive with  one  grower  and  under  one  set  of  conditions,  and  very 
unproductive  with  a  fairly  near  neighbor,  so  that  local  evidence 
as  to  its  behavior  is  very  desirable;  and  the  more  local  the  evi- 
dence can  be,  the  better. 

4.  Size  of  Fruit. — In  spite  of  the  fact  that  medium-sized 
strawberries,  like  medium-sized  fruits  of  any  kind,  are  usually 
very  much  better  than  overgrown  ones,  the  large  berries  are  the 
ones  that  sell,  and  many  varieties  are  popular  and  profitable 
principally  because  of  their  large  size.  It  is  certainly  true  that 
small-sized  varieties  are  to  be  avoided,  and  with  the  present  en- 
lightenment of  the  consuming  public,  the  larger  the  berry  the 
better.  A  variety  of  which  a  dozen  berries  would  fill  a  quart 
box  would  need  little  else  to  commend  it. 

5.  Quality. — In  spite  of  what  has  just  been  said  about  size, 
the  factor  of  quality  is  important.  It  probably  is  not  as  impor- 
tant with  strawberries  as  with  such  a  fruit  as  the  apple,  which 
is  eaten  out  of  hand  and  largely  without  any  "  amendments," 
for  with  strawberries  the  fiavor,  or  lack  of  flavor,  is  pretty  well 
concealed  by  the  cream  and  sugar  that  we  eat  on  them.  But 
still  quality  does  count,  and  one  reason  for  the  popularity  of  the 
Marshall,  for  example,  is  no  doubt  its  high  quality. 

6.  Color. — This  is  not  of  great  importance,  and  still  it  is 
worth  considering,  for  a  handsome,  bright  red  is  more  attractive 
than  a  dull,  washed-out  shade, 

7.  Firmness  of  Flesh. — This  is,  of  course,  much  more  im- 
portant in  a  berry  to  be  shipped  long  distances  than  in  one 
which  is  to  be  handled  on  the  local  market,  but  in  any  case  is  a 
valuable  characteristic  if  it  can  be  had  without  sacrificing  other 
and  more  important  points.     For  a  long-distance  shipper  it  is 

5 


68  STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  AND  PLANTS 

frequently  regarded  as  the  crucial  point  in  a  berry,  and  varie- 
ties are  sometimes  grown  which  have  little  else  to  commend 
them  than  fine  color  and  firmness  of  flesh.  This  partly  accounts 
for  those  disappointing  experiences  one  has  in  the  winter  and 
early  spring  when  he  buys  a  box  of  those  handsome  out-of-town 
strawberries  expecting  a  treat,  but  gets  a  shock  instead.  This 
is  further  emphasized  if  the  ben-ies  have  been  shipped  a 
great  distance. 

8.  Plant  Making. — Varieties  vary  greatly  in  their  ability  or 
tendency  to  send  out  runners  and  make  vew  plants.  The  practi- 
cal importance  of  knowing  this  character  of  a  variety  is  so  that 
one  may  set  the  plants  close  enough  together  to  insure  a  full 
stand  and  yet  not  so  close  as  to  give  too  much  overcrowding. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  varieties  tend  to  set  so  many  plants 
that  the  rows  are  too  crowded  for  the  best  growth  of  the  plants. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  few  varieties  set  plants  so  sparingly  that 
the  original  plants  must  be  set  close  together  to  insure  a  full 
stand  in  the  row  when  it  comes  to  the  fruiting  stage. 

9.  Resistance  to  Disease. — The  one  serious  strawberry 
disease  for  a  large  part  of  the  countiy  is  the  leaf  spot,  and 
varieties  vary  greatly  in  their  ability  to  withstand  its  attacks. 

10.  Vigor  of  Plant. — This  is  another  point  on  wdiich  there  is 
a  marked  difference  in  varieties,  so  much  so  that  it  is  sometimes 
even  desirable  to  vaiy  the  fertilizing  of  the  plants.  In  any 
case,  it  is  desirable  to  know  how  a  certain  variety  stands  in 
this  matter. 

11.  Length  of  season  of  ripening  is  a  point  worth  consid- 
ering, though  it  is  rarely  mentioned  in  discussions.  Some  varie- 
ties can  be  harvested  in  two  or  three  pickings  because  the  blos- 
soms all  open  at  nearly  the  same  time  and  the  berries  are  there- 
fore all  nearly  of  the  same  age  (Fig.  24).  Other  varieties  ex- 
tend over  a  long  period  of  time,  the  oldest  berries  being  ripe 
when  the  youngest  are  just  set  (Fig.  25).  With  the  home  plan- 
tation this  latter  characteristic  is  to  be  desired,  while  with  com- 
mercial beds  it  may  not  bo. 

12.  Popularity. — A  last  point  which  it  is  worth  noting  in 
regard  to  a  viriety  is  its  popularity.     While  consumers  know 


THE  USE  TO  BE  MADE  OF  THE  FRUIT 


69 


strawberry  varieties  much  less  than  they  do  apples,  for  example, 
yet  a  well-known  and  popular  sort,  as  Marshall,  has  a  distinct 
advantage  over  some  new  sorts  as  Baltimore  and  Bull  Moose. 

General  Considerations. — In  addition  to  keeping  in  mind  the 
foregoing  varietal  characteristics,  the  following  general  ob- 
servations are  worthy  of  attention  in  deciding  upon  varieties. 

1.  The  Use  to  be  Made  of  the  Fruit.— The  choice  of  a 
variety  is  going  to  vary  greatly,  depending  on  whether  it  is  to  be 
used  on  the  home  table  or  sent  to  market.     If  the  former,  then 


Fig.  24. — Cluster  of  fruit  from  a  short-  Fig.  25. — Cluster  of  fruit  from  a  Ions-season 

season  variety  of  strawberry.      Note  that  variety  of  strawberry.     Note     that   while  the 

most  of   the  berries  are  fully  ripe  and   the  oldest  berry   is  ripe,  the  youngest  is  just   set. 

youngest  one  has  reached  the  white  stage.  Compare  with  figure  24. 
Compare  with  figure  25. 


quality  is  the  all-important  thing,  for  we  can  rely  on  the  family 
taking  what  is  given  them  provided  the  flavor  is  good ;  while  tlie 
buyer  (unless  he  is  a  very  exceptional  buyer)  is  going  to  be  in- 
fluenced far  more  by  the  color  and  size  and  general  attractive- 
ness of  the  fruit  than  he  is  by  its  quality,  which  he  usually  does 
not  know  anything  about  until  he  gets  home.  Doubtless  one  can 
overcome  this  somewhat  in  a  really  personal  market,  where  the 
buyer  comes  into  rather  intimate  personal  contact  with  the 
grower,  and  is  influenced  by  what  the  latter  says  of  the  quality 
of  his  ben-ies;  but  it  is  such  a  universal  characteristic  to  be 


70  STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  AND  PLANTS 

attracted  to  a  handsome  fniit  that  it  is  uphill  business  trying  to 
push  the  unattractive  sorts, 

2.  An  Experimental  Plot. — By  all  means  the  most  useful 
and  satisfactory  way  of  settling  the  variety  question  is  by  trying 
out  the  varieties  on  the  homo  place.  This  gives  first-hand,  per- 
sonal information  that  cannot  be  equaled  in  any  other  way. 
Fortunately,  too,  it  is  not  an  expensive  operation.  Strawberries 
are  so  short-lived  and  so  inexpensive,  and  moreover  occupy  so 
little  room,  that  almost  anyone  can  afford  to  run  his  trial  bed. 
Certainly  an  experimental  plot  ought  to  be  a  part  of  every 
commercial  strawberry  plantation,  for  even  after  one  has  selected 
a  set  of  reasonably  satisfactory  varieties,  there  is  such  a  con- 
tinual procession  of  new  and  promising  varieties  that  tiiere  is 
constant  danger  of  missing  something  especially  good  if  one 
neglects  this  work.  Of  course,  it  is  not  good  policy  to  try 
everything  that  comes  along,  but  after  the  experiment  stations 
have  tried  them  and  sifted  out  those  which  give  reasonable 
promise,  then  the  grower  should  step  in  and  bring  the  test  to  a 
final  personal  finish.  Besides  the  new  varieties,  there  are  con- 
stantly cropping  up  old  ones  that  have  never  been  tried  out  on 
the  place  but  which  have  proved  successful  in  some  other  place, 
and  the  behavior  of  which  on  the  home  fai-m  ought  therefore 
to  be  observed. 

In  addition  to  the  practical  commercial  value  of  this  plan 
there  is  the  added  i^dvantage  of  its  interest  which  ought  not  to 
be  overlooked.  Most  successful  fruit  growers  become  enthu- 
siasts in  their  line  and  want  to  test  out  everything  in  sight  in 
the  way  of  varieties.  !Many  an  apple  grower  has  been  seriously 
crippled  by  yielding  to  this  temptation  and  getting  forty  varie- 
ties instead  of  four  into  his  orchard.  But  with  strawberries 
there  is  a  chance,  for  the  reasons  set  forth  above,  to  combine 
business  and  pleasure  by  letting  one's  enthusiasm  for  new  sorts 
of  the  fruit  have  full  play. 

3.  Advice  from  Neighbors. — Xext  to  personal  experience, 
one  gets  the  very  best  advice  on  the  variety  question  from  his 
neighbors,  and  the  nearer  they  are,  of  course,  the  better.  A 
neighbor  just  over  the  fence  with  the  same  or  very  similar  soil, 


ADAPTATION  TO  SOIL 


71 


and  with  a  good-sized  strawberry  patch  and  a  disposition  to 
impart  his  knowledge,  is  a  boon  to  any  intending  strawberry 
grower,  and  if  necessary  can  pretty  nearly  obviate  the  necessity 
of  the  experimental  plot,  thongh  the  owner  thereby  loses  all  the 
fun  of  watching  over  his  new  candidates  and  debating  with  him- 
self whether  or  not  they  ought  to  be  elected  to  a  place  on 
the  home  team. 

4.  Demands  of  the  Market.— A  fourth  general  principle 
which  is  worthy  of  some  consideration,  though  it  is  by  no  means 
as  forceful  an  argument  with  strawberries  as  with  apples,  is  the 


Fig.   26. — Types  of  strawberry  varieties. 

demand  of  the  particular  market  for  which  the  crop  is  grown. 
Some  markets  prefer  the  Marshall  to  any  other  variety ;  others 
want  the  Dunlap,  and  still  others  the  Sample  !  And  while  these 
markets  will  take  other  sorts,  it  is  much  easier  to  sell  them 
Avhat  they  want,  and  the  grower  ought  to  select  these  varieties  if 
it  is  at  all  possible  for  him  to  grow  them  profitably  (Fig.  26). 
5.  Adaptation  to  Soil. — Lastly,  one  ought  to  specifically  and 
constantly  and  carefully  consider  his  own  particular  soil,  and 
just  as  far  as  it  is  possible  to  find  out  the  soil  preferences  of 
varieties,  he  ought  to  choose  those  sorts  that  like  his  type  of  soil. 
This  is,  of  course,  one  of  the  strong  argTiments  in  favor  of  the 
home  experimental  plot — that  one  secures  indisputable  informa- 
tion on  this  variety  question. 


72  STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  AND  PLANTS 

II.    STRAWBERRY   PLANT 

Propagation. — The  strawberry  is  propagated  principally  by 
means  of  runners.  These  are  long,  slender,  cord-like  stems 
which  are  sent  out  by  the  mother  plants  and  at  their  nodes  or 
joints  produce  a  cluster  of  leaves  and  later  send  down  roots 
forming  a  new  plant.  Each  cord  may  produce  from  one  to  three 
or  four  plants.  With  good  soil  conditions  the  runners  take  root 
readily  and  need  no  assistance ;  but  if  for  any  reason  one  is 
anxious  to  have  them  root  in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  to  get 
the  largest  possible  number  of  plants,  some  assistance  may  be 
given.  This  may  be  done  either  by  placing  a  clod  of  earth  or  a 
small  stone  just  back  of  the  joint  to  hold  the  runner  in  place 
while  it  roots;  or  if  the  leaves  have  started  fairly  well  at  the 
node  it  may  have  some  soil  heaped  up  about  it  to  hasten  the  root- 
ing process.  The  runner  method  of  propagation  gives  plants 
that  are  true  to  name,  that  is,  a  runner-plant  gro^\Ti  from  a 
mother  plant  of  the  Glen  Mary  variety  will  be  a  Glen  Mary  plant. 

Where  new  varieties  are  desired,  the  seeds  from  the  berries 
are  used,  and,  as  with  most  other  fiiiits,  the  seedling  plants  will 
vary  widely  from  the  parent.  This  method  is  very  rarely  used, 
of  course ;  never  in  the  ordinary  commercial  business  of  propa- 
gating strawberries  for  fruit.  If  it  is  used  it  is  practiced  by  the 
experiment  stations,  by  commercial  propagators  of  strawberries, 
and  by  amateur  enthusiasts. 

Plants  With  Good  Roots. — With  ninncr  plants  there  is,  at 
the  time  of  taking  wp  the  plants  for  a  new  bed,  naturally  a  wide 
variation  in  the  size  of  the  first  and  last  plants  set  on  any  par- 
ticular runner  cord.  The  first  one  may  be  as  large  as,  or  even 
larger  than,  the  original  mother  plant,  with  abundant  roots  and 
leaves,  while  the  last  one  set  has  small,  rather  weak  roots  and 
few  and  small  leaves.  Most  growers  prefer  not  to  use  these 
small,  weak  plants  last  formed,  and  a  few  object  to  the  very 
large  ones.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  safest  and  probably  best, 
where  one  has  a  choice,  to  select  the  medium-sized  plants ;  and 
large,  vigorous  roots  with  small  leaves  are  always  to  be  preferred 
to  the  reverse — small  roots  and  large  leaves  (Fig.  27). 


A  PROPAGATION  BED  73 

But  whatever  the  size  of  them,  the  plants  should  be  vigor- 
ous, with  good  and  reasonably  abundant  roots  (Fig.  28).  This 
means  that  it  is  not  good  practice  to  take  them  from  old  beds 
where  tliev  have  been  weakened  by  crowding  and  disease.     In- 


FlG.   27. — A  poor  type  of  strawberry  plant;  leaves  too  numerous  and  too  large,  roots  too 
small.     It  has  been  allowed  to  grow  too  much  in  the  spring  before  taking  up. 

stead  they  should  come  from  new  plantations,  and  if  possible 
from  mother  plants  which  have  not  yet  fruited. 

A  Propagation  Bed. — Some  growers  make  a  practice,  and  it 
ought  to  be  more  common,  of  setting  aside  a  particular  bed,  or 
part  of  the  bed,  for  propagation  purposes,  instead  of  taking  the 


74  STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  AND  PLANTS 

plants  promiscuously  from  the  fruiting  rows  as  is  usually  done. 
If  this  custom  is  followed,  the  entire  row,  or  section  of  the  row, 
is  dug  out  when  planting  time  comes,  the  most  satisfactory 
plants  are  selected  for  use,  and  the  balance  are  thrown  away. 
This  has  the  double  advantage  of  not  damaging  the  fruiting 
bed,  and  of  allowing  one  to  cull  out  the  plants  and  get  the  very 
best  for  setting. 

Digging  Plants. — Where  one  digs  his  own  plants  the  work 
should  be  done  with  a  spade,  a  trowel  or  a  spading  fork,  depend- 


,^r&^4 


Fig.  28. — A  good  type  of  strawberry  plant,  small,  compact  leaves  and  abundant  compact 
root    system. 

ing  on  whether  the  entire  row  is  to  be  dug  up,  or  the  plants  taken 
out  here  and  there ;  also  on  whether  the  roots  are  to  be  shaken 
free  from  soil,  or  the  plants  moved  with  a  block  of  earth  about 
them,  as  shown  in  figure  29.  If  the  entire  row  is  to  come  out, 
then  the  larger  implements  will  do  the  work  more  quickly, 
either  one  being  used  where  the  roots  are  to  be  shaken  out 
(though  the  fork  is  perhaps  to  be  preferred).  The  spade  may 
be  used  if  soil  is  to  be  moved  with  the  plants.  In  case  the  plants 
are  taken  here  aiid  there  from  the  fruiting  row,  a  trowel  or  other 
small  implement  is  necessary  in  order  to  disturb  as  little  as  pos- 
sible the  remaining  plants.  In  any  case  it  ought  to  be  remem- 
bered that  the  later  in  the  spring  the  plants  are  dug,  the  poorer 


WHEN  PLANTS  ARE  PURCHASED  75 

they  themselves  are  and  the  more  the  hed  is  injured  hy  the 
digging  process. 

Plants  for  August  Setting.— Where  it  is  desired  to  move 
plants  in  August  or  September  or  later,  with  the  idea  of  getting 
some  fruit  the  next  year,  use  the  strongest  field  plants ;  or  potted 
plants  are  often  used ;  the  potted  plants  may  be  used  by  growers 
wanting  only  a  few  plants.     Small  pots,  two  and  one-half  to 


^^. 


■^ 


Fig.   29. — A  strawberry  plant  taken  up  with  soil  about  the  roots.     If  rightly  handled  such  a 
plant  can  be  moved  without  checking  its  growth. 

three  inches  across,  are  sunk  in  the  soil  with  the  top  just  at  the 
surface.  If  the  runners  have  started  to  root,  they  are  set  in  the 
pot  as  any  other  plant  would  be.  If  they  have  not  yet  sent  out 
roots  the  little  plant  is  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the  pot 
and  is  held  there  by  a  small  stone  or  clod  of  earth  (Fig.  30). 
When  plants  are  to  be  purchased  they  should  be  bought 
from  a  dealer  as  near  home  as  possible,  since  there  is  gTeat  dan- 
ger of  their  heating  in  the  packages  if  sent  from  a  distance.  As 
with  any  other  stock,  the  order  ought  to  be  placed  just  as  early 
as  possible  so  as  to  be  sure  to  secure  the  desired  varieties. 
Prices,  of  course,  will  vary  gi-eatly;  but  from  20  cents  to  50 


76 


STRAWBERRY  VARIETIES  AND  PLANTS 


cents  per  dozen,  75  cents  to  one  dollar  per  hundred,  and  $3.50 
to  $8  per  thousand  is  about  right.  It  will  require  9G80  plants 
to  set  an  acre  of  bed  with  the  rows  three  feet  apart  and  the 
plants  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  If  the  rows  are  put  at  four 
feet  the  number  of  plants  required  will  be  reduced  to  72G0. 
Pedigreed  Plants. — Some  dealers  advertise  what  are  called 
pedigreed  plants ;  that  is,  plants  grown  from  selected  and  espe- 


FiG.  30- — Potting  strawberry  plants.  Small  pots  are  sunk  in  the  soil,  the  runner  is 
placed  on  top  of  the  pot  and  held  in  place  by  a  small  stone  or  clod  of  earth,  then  the  soil 
IS  pulled  up  over  the  edges  of  the  pot. 

cially  strong  and  prolific  mother  plants.  While  this  is  sound 
in  theory,  it  is  doubtful  whether,  wdth  the  present  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  the  planter  is  justified  in  paving  any  extra  for 
such  plants. 

Care  of  New  Plants. — When  plants  brought  from  a  distance 
arrive,  they  should  be  very  carefully  heeled  in  unless  they  are  to 
be  set  at  once.  This  must  be  done  with  the  greatest  care,  other- 
wise they  deteriorate  very  rapidly.  They  should  be  placed  in  a 
mellow  and  moist  soil,  in  a  spot  where  they  will  be  sheltered 
from  sun  and  wind.  Each  package  should  be  opened  and 
spread  out  enough  so  that  the  roots  of  every  plant  will  come  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  which  should  be  pressed  very  firmly  about 


QUESTIONS  77 

them.  After  they  are  in  phice  a  thorough  watering  will  be  a 
great  assistance  in  keeping  them  fresh  and  vigorous.  Great 
care  should  also  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  soil  does  not  cover 
the  crowns  if  they  are  to  remain  here  for  more  than  a  day  or 
two.  Lastly,  it  is  very  important  to  see  that  the  different  varie- 
ties are  kept  separate.  A  little  space  should  be  left  between  the 
different  lots  and  a  large  label  stake  driven  down  with  each 
variety,  otherwise  one  has  no  notion  where  Sample  ends  and 
Senator  Dunlap  begins. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Can  you  tell  the  difference  between  staminate  and  pistillate  varieties 

of  strawberries  when  they  are  in  bloom?     What  is  the  difference? 

2.  How  important  is  the  season  of  ripening  of  a  variety  of  strawberry? 

3.  Is  size  of  fruit  important  in  strawberries?     How  important? 

4.  How  much  attention  ought  we  to  pay  to  quality  in  a  strawberry? 

5.  How  would  you  vary  your  choice  of  varieties  depending  on  the  use  to 

be  made  of  them  ? 

6.  How  important  a   factor  is  soil  in  deciding  what  varieties  of  straw- 

berries to  set? 

7.  How  are  strawberries  propagated  ?    If  you  plant  the  seed  of  a  Marshall 

strawberry,   what   kind   of   fruit   will   the   seedling   plant   that   you 
grow  bear? 

8.  What  is  a  "  propagating  bed?  " 

9.  What  is  the  proper  way  to  dig  and  handle  strawberry  plants? 
10.  Would  you  buy  pedigreed  plants?     Why? 


CHAPTER  X 
SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

OiS'E  of  the  first  questions  to  decide  in  establishing  a  straw- 
berry bed  is  what  system  shall  be  used  in  laying  it  off.  There 
are  four  fairly  well-recognized  systems  in  use,  with  many  modi- 
fications of  each  of  them. 

The  Hill  System. — To  begin  with,  we  have  the  hill  system. 
The  chief  difference  between  this  system  and  all  others  is  that 
no  runners  are  allowed  to  set ;  as  fast  as  they  develop  they  are 
pulled  or  cut  off,  so  that  all  the  vigor  of  the  plant  goes  into  pro- 
ducing a  heavy  crown  the  first  season,  which  in  turn  means 
large  and  abundant  fruit  the  following  season  (Fig.  31). 

Hill  System  in  Beds. — If  the  labor  of  cultivating  is  to  be 
done  entirely  by  hand,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  the  hill 
system,  the  plants  are  set  in  beds  of  four  or  five  rows,  with  a 
pathway  about  eighteen  inches  wide  between  the  beds.  The 
plants  in  the  beds  are  set  equally  distant  apart  in  both  direc- 
tions, the  distance  varying  from  twelve  to  twenty  inches,  with 
perhaps  fifteen  inches  as  the  most  common  distance.  With  this 
arrangement  the  common  hoe  and  the  wheel  hoe  are  the  prin- 
cipal implements  used,  and  the  labor  cost  is,  of  course,  high. 

Hill  System  in  Rows. — Where  one  wishes  to  use  horse  labor 
for  cultivating  between  the  rows  they  may  be  placed  from  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  inches  apart,  and  the  plants  usually  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Each  plant  is  treated  exactly 
as  in  the  "  bed  "  method ;  that  is,  all  runners  are  removed  and 
all  the  strength  of  the  plant  is  thrown  into  the  production  of  a 
heavy  cro\^Ti. 

Which  Hill  System  to  Use. — The  question  as  to  which  of 
the  above  methods  to  adopt  (the  bed  or  the  row)  in  using  the 
hill  system,  depends  largely  on  the  available  supply  of  labor  and 
land.  If  labor  is  scarce,  as  it  frequently  is,  then  more  berries 
can  be  raised  per  hundred  dollars  of  labor  by  introducing  horse 
78 


THE  HEDGE-ROW  SYSTEM 


79 


labor  for  the  work  between  the  rows.  On  the  other  hand,  if  kind 
is  scarce,  and  high  in  vahie,  so  that  the  rental  item  is  impor- 
tant, then  the  bed  method  may  be  best,  as  one  can  raise  more 
berries  per  acre  by  this  method. 

The  Hedge-row  System. — Next  to  the  hill  system  we  have 
the  two  hedge  systems,  the  single  hedge  and  the  double  hedge. 
11  Mi 


p'lG.  ,^i. — Single  crown  in  the  hill  system  of 
duce  a  large  numl 


strawberries.     Such   a  plant  will  pro- 
finest  berries. 


In  the  former  the  plants  are  set  about  two  feet  apart  in  the  row 
and  two  runners  are  taken  out,  one  in  each  direction  in  the  row, 
and  allowed  to  root  about  eight  inches  from  the  mother  plants. 
All  other  runners  are  removed.  At  the  end  of  the  season  we 
have  a  single  row  containing  three  times  as  many  plants  as  were 
set.  Compared  with  the  hill  system,  therefore,  there  is  a  great 
saving  in  the  cost  of  plants,  which  is  one  of  the  big  items. of 
expense  in  the  latter,  where  the  plants  are  bought.  The  rows  in 
the  single  hedge  system  are  from  two  to  three  feet  apart,  though 


80  SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

seldom  as  far  as  three  feet.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  allow 
ample  room  for  the  plants  to  form  large  crowns  and  still  have 
plenty  of  space  to  get  throngh  with  the  cultivator.  Thirty  inches 
will  usually  be  ample  even  for  the  largest  growing  varieties. 

In  the  double  hedge-row  system  each  of  the  mother  plants  is 
allowed  to  set  four  runners  which  are  placed  so  as  to  form  tw^o 
new  rows  a  little  outside  of  the  original  row   (Fig.  32).     In 


Fig.  32. — Upper  line,  strawberry  plants  set  on  single-hedge  system;  lower  line,  double- 
hedge  system. 

either  the  single  or  double  hedge  systems  some  growers  allow 
each  of  the  original  runners  to  set  one  additional  runner,  thus 
increasing  the  number  of  plants  in  the  row.  The  rows  in  the 
double  hedge  system  are  placed  a  little  farther  apart  than  in  the 
single  hedge  to  allow  for  the  somewhat  wider  row. 

The  advantages  of  the  hedge-row  systems  (Fig,  33)  are, 
first,  that  the  runner  plants  being  spaced  and  the  number  of 
them  reduced,  there  is  no  crowding,  and  each  plant  has  ample 
room  to  develop  a  large  crown,  which,  of  course,  means  large 
and  abundant  berries.     Second,  the  number  of  plants  required 


THE  MATTED-ROW  SYSTEM 


81 


is  very  much  less  than  in  the  hill  system,  so  that  the  cost  of  the 
bed  is  gi-eatly  lessened  where  one  has  to  buy  the  plants. 

The  disadvantages  are  that  it  requires  a  great  deal  of  time 
to  set  the  runners  which  are  to  be  retained  and  to  remove  the 
superfluous  ones,  and  also  that  one  must  keep  the  bed  constantly 
in  mind  to  be  sure  that  none  of  this  work  is  neglected.  This 
latter  point  is  more  serious  than  many  might  realize.  The 
amount  of  labor  is  not  such  a  serious  matter  if  one  can  get  it 


.•-^^ 


Fig.  33. — Hedge-row  system  of  growing  strawberries.    An  excellent  system  for  growing 
fine  berries. 

finished  up  and  out  of  the  way.  But,  particularly  where  one  is 
engaging  in  other  branches  of  farming,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
it  is  a  somewhat  burdensome  matter  to  have  to  keep  constantly 
in  mind  that  the  runners  in  the  strawberry  bed  must  be  watched 
and  either  set  or  removed. 

The  Matted-Row  System. — The  last  type  of  system  is  the 
matted  row.  In  this  the  plants  are  set  from  fifteen  to  thirty 
inches  apart  in  the  row,  depending  on  the  ability  of  the  variety 
to  set  runners.  Some  varieties,  as  the  Dunlap  or  the  Klondyke, 
send  out  numerous  runners  with  long  cords  between  the  nodes 
and  may  therefore  be  set  thirty  inches  apart  and  still  insure  that 
there  will  be  plenty  of  plants  set,  while  others,  as  the  Marshall  or 
6 


82 


SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 


the  Glen  Mary,  set  fewer  ininners  on  shorter  cords  and  mnst 
therefore  be  set  closer  together. 

There  are  two  types  of  this  system,  the  wide  and  narrow 
(Fig.  34)  matted  row,  depending  on  the  width  of  the  space  in 
which  the  runners  are  allowed  to  set.  Of  course,  there  are  all 
sorts  of  variations  in  widths,  but  typically  the  narrow  matted 
row  is  about  a  foot  wide  and  the  wide  row  about  two  feet.  To 
allow  for  this  difference  the  rows  are  spaced  farther  apart  in 
the  latter,  usually  three  feet  in  the  narrow  and  four  feet  in 
the  wide  row. 

Distances  for  Planting  and  Numbers  of  Plants. — The  fol- 
lowing tables  give  some  of  the  usual  distances  apart  for  rows 
and  plants  in  the  rows,  and  the  number  of  plants  required  to 
set  an  acre : 

Distances  Between  Plants  and  Rows 


System 


Distance 

between 

Plants 

Inches 


Distance  betweer 
Rows 

Inches 


Hill 

Single  hedge 

Double  hedge 

Narrow  matted  row 
Wide  matted  row . . . 


12  to  20 

24 

24 

15  to  30 

15  to  30 


24  to  30  if  in  rows. 
24  to  36 
30  to  36 
36  to  42. 
42  to  48. 


Number  of  Plants  Per  Acre 


Distance 

between 

plants 

Inches 

Distance 
between 

rows 
Inches 

Number 
of  plants 

Distance 
between 
plants 
Inches 

Distance 
between 

rows 
Inches 

Number 
of  plants 

12 
12 
12 
15 
15 
18 
24 

12 
24 
30 
15 
30 
18 
24 

43,560 
21,780 
17,424 
27,878 
13,939 
19,360 
10,890 

24 
24 
24 
24 
30 
30 

30 
36 
42 
48 
36 
48 

8,712 
7,260 
6,223 
5,445 
5,808 
4,356 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  if  one  sets  an  acre 
of  strawberries  in  the  hill  system  at  15  inches  each  way  it  will 
require  27,878  plants,  while  an  acre  in  the  matted  row  system 
at  24  by  42  inches,  which  would  be  average  distances,  would 


MARKING   OFF 


83 


require  only  6223  plants.  At  five  dollars  per  thousand,  which 
is  a  fair  average  price,  this  would  mean  thirty-one  dollars  and 
eleven  cents  for  plants  for  the  matted  row  acre,  and  one  hundred 
and  thirty-nine  dollars  and  thirty-nine  cents  for  the  acre  in  hills. 
Of  course,  this  estimate  does  not  allow  for  any  walks  which 
might  be  left  between  the  hill  beds,  and  which  would  reduce 
somewhat  the  number  of  plants  required;  but  even  at  that,  it 


Fig.  34. — Strawberries  grown  by  the  narrow  matted-row  system.  This  is  probably 
the  most  generally  satisfactory  system,  being  easy  to  handle  and  giving  a  large  quantity  of 
fine  berries. 

will  be  seen  that  the  relative  cost  for  plants  is  very  much  higher 
in  the  hill  system. 

Marking  Off. — Having  decided  on  the  method  to  be  used  in 
planting  the  bed,  the  next  question  is  to  mark  it  off.  For  this 
purpose  various  kinds  of  markers  are  in  use,  but  for  the  most 
part  two  types  are  used,  either  the  sled  type  (Fig.  35)  or  the 
rake  type  (Figs.  36,  37  and  38).  The  former  is  modeled  after 
the  old  style  corn  marker  and  consists  of  a  number  of  sled 
runners  with  a  light  frame  to  hold  them  together  and  a  light 
tongue  or  pair  of  shafts  with  which  to  drag  the  marker  over  the 


84 


SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 


Fig    35  — Sled  runner  type  of  marker       An  excellent  one  where  soil  conditions  are  good. 


Fig.  36. — Starting  to  mark  off  a  berry  patch  with  a  rigid,  three-row  marker.   Notice  the  holes 
in  the  "backbone"  to  allow  for  adjusting  the  teeth  to  different  distances. 


MARKING  OFF 


85 


field.      The  numers   are  spaced  the  distance  apart   that   it   is 
desired  to  have  the  rows. 

The  rake  type  is  like  an  immense  wooden  rake,  the  backbone 


Fig.   37. — A  marker  with  a  hiiiKc  in  the-  "  ba.  k!  imhu  "   t. 
of  the  soil.     An  improvement  over  tlie  rigid  n; 


of  which  is  a  piece  of  scantling,  say,  two  by  three  inches,  and  six 
or  eight  feet  long.  Inch  holes  are  bored  in  this,  three  or  four 
inches  apart,  for  its  entire  length  and  a  number  of  teeth  are 
made  for  it.     These  teeth  are  about  a  foot  long  and  are  made 


86  SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

from  two-bv-tliree-incli  material  and  sharpened  at  both  ends. 
One  end  is  made  to  fit  into  the  inch  hole  and  the  other  is  sharp- 
ened so  as  to  make  a  mark  as  the  marker  is  dragged  across  the 
field.  The  great  advantage  of  this  marker  is  that  by  means  of 
the  movable  teeth  it  is  possible  to  space  the  rows  at  any  desired 
distance  which  is  a  mnltiple  of  three  or  of  four  inches.  It  also 
makes  a  plain  mark  in  almost  any  soil. 

The  first  row  across  the  field  may  be  established  by  a  line  of 
stakes  or,  in  smaller  blocks  of  land,  by  a  cord  stretched  across 
the  field  (Fig.  39).  In  either  case  the  man  w'ho  pnlls  the  marker 
follows  the  line  thus  established  and  marks  off  three  or  four 
rows,  depending  on  the  number  of  runners  or  teeth  on  his  marker. 
On  the  return  trip  he  allows  the  first  tooth  of  his  marker  to 
travel  in  the  last  mark  made  on  the  previous  trip  and  goes  back 
and  forth  thus  until  the  whole  field  is  marked  off.  These  marks 
establish  the  rows.     A  wheel  marker  is  shown  in  figiire  40. 

Places  for  Plants  in  the  Rows. — It  next  becomes  necessary 
to  establish  the  points  in  the  rows  where  the  plants  are  to  be  set. 
With  the  matted  rows  and  even  with  the  hedge  systems,  it  is 
often  considered  sufficiently  accurate  to  allow  the  men  setting 
the  plants  to  do  the  spacing,  since  in  these  systems  absolute 
accuracy  is  not  essential  unless  one  expects  to  cultivate  in  both 
directions.  The  men  are  simply  told  to  set  the  plants  every 
fifteen  or  eighteen  or  twenty-four  inches  in  the  row  and  are  left 
to  use  their  judgment  in  the  matter.  Since  different  growers 
vary  greatly  in  the  distances  at  which  they  set  their  plants  it 
stands  to  reason  that  the  above  plan  is  likely  to  be  quite  accurate 
enough  except  where  cross-cultivation  is  to  be  practiced. 

In  the  hill  system,  on  the  other  hand,  where  greater  accuracy 
is  desired,  or  in  any  of  the  systems  where  cross-cultivation  is  to 
be  practiced,  it  becomes  necessary  to  mark  the  field  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  For  this  purpose  a  lighter-weight  marker  of  the 
rake  type  is  best  for  the  hill  system,  the  operator  cross-marking 
one  bed  of  four  or  five  rows  at  a  time,  lifting  up  the  rake  bodily, 
after  drawing  it  across  the  bed,  and  throwing  it  back  across  the 
bed  as  one  would  in  operating  a  common  rake. 

In  case  one  wishes  to  cross-cultivate  the  matted  row  or  hedge 


PLACES  FOR  PLANTS  IN  THE  ROWS 


87 


:  .c.  ..  -i^u.: 


Fig.  39. — Pressing  the  line  into  the  soil  to  mark  the  first  ruw.    If  thi,  i.-,  1,1.1  ^KdiL  the  line  may 
be  pushed  to  one  side  as  the  marker  is  pulled  along  it  and  the  row  will  not  be  straight. 


Fig.  40. — Wheel  type   of  marker.     Excellent  in  soft  soil.    Not  good  on  stony  or  heavy 
clay  soils. 


88 


SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 


systems  (which,  of  course,  can  be  done  only  during  the  early 
part  of  the  season  before  the  runners  begin  to  root),  the  cross 
rows  are  marked  with  one  of  the  other  types  of  markers  which 
were  used  the  long  way  of  the  bed. 

Making   the   Holes   for   Plants. — The  marking  being  now 
accomplished  the  next  question  is  how  the  holes  for  the  plants 


Fig.  41. — Types  of  trowels  used  in  setting  strawberry  plants.     The  one  at  the  extreme  right 
is   one   of   the    best   types. 


shall  be  made.     There  are  all  sorts  of  methods  in  use,  but  the 
following  are  the  most  common  : 

1.  Where  the  soil  conditions  are  good,  a  mellow  soil,  well 
prepared  and  with  few  or.no  stones  and  gravel  in  it,  the  men 
who  set  the  plants  can  make  the  holes  with  their  hands.  This  is 
by  all  means  the  best  method  if  it  can  be  used  satisfactorily. 

2.  Where  soil  conditions  are  not  quite  so  good  some  sort  of 
trowel  or  dibble  may  be  used  (Fig.  41).  The  important  points 
for  such  an  instrument  are  that  it  be  of  good  size  so  as  to  open 
a  large  hole  for  the  plant  and  that  it  have  an  ample  and  com- 


MAKING  THE  HOLES  FOR  PLANTS  89 

fortable  grip  for  the  hand,  otherwise  the  work  will  be  slow  and  a 
good  many  blisters  will  be  likely  to  be  produced. 

3.  Another  plan  sometimes  used  under  similar  soil  condi- 
tions as.  the  last  is  to  use  a  spade,  one  man  pushino-  flown  the 


Fig.  42. — Spade  mcthod_  of  scUing   sLiu 
berry   plants.      Inserting   the   spade. 


inij   the   plant   beh. 
spade. 


Fig.  44. — Spade  inserted  the  second  time  to  Fig.  45. — Pressing  the  soil  against  the 
press  the  soil  against  the  roots  of  the  plant.  plant. 

spade  and  shoving  it  fonvard  while  a  second  man  inserts  the 
plant  behind  the  spade  (Figs.  42  to  45).  This  is  pretty  sure  to 
prove  a  slow  method  per  man  employed  with  average  men, 
though  some  remarkably  good  records  have  been  made  with  it 
where  the  men  really  "  hustled." 


90  SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

4.  Sometimes  an  ordinary  hoe  is  used  to  make  the  holes,  this 
being  made  a  special  operation  by  a  man  who  goes  ahead  of 
those  setting  the  plants  and  digs  a  hole  at  the  proper  place. 

Setting  Teams. — With  any  method  other  than  the  spade 
method  of  making  the  holes,  it  will  be  found  most  expeditious 
to  use  gangs  of  three  men,  or  two  men  and  a  boy,  for  setting. 
The  boy  or  one  of  the  men  goes  ahead  with  the  plants  in  a  pail 
containing  a  little  water  to  keep  the  roots  moist,  and  drops  them 
at  about  the  right  points  for  setting  (Fig.  46).  This  leaves  the 
setters  nothing  to  do  but  to  "  set,"  and  with  anything  like  a  good 
team  the  w^ork  goes  forward  very  rapidly. 

The  setting  of  the  plant  is  somewhat  difficult  to  accomplish 
satisfactorily.     There  are  four  essentials  to  good  setting. 

1.  The  plant  must  be  set  at  just  the  right  depth,  neither 
too  high  nor  too  low  (Fig.  48).  Since  the  strawberry  plant  has 
a  definite  crown  or  gTowing  point,  if  it  is  set  too  deep  this  bud 
becomes  covered  over  wath  soil  and  the  plant  is  likely  to  die. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  plant  is  set  too  high  the  upper  ends  of 
the  roots  are  exposed  and  the  plant  dries  out  and  usually  dies. 
It  should  be  set  with  the  central  bud  or  growing  point  just 
nicely  above  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

2.  The  roots  of  the  plants  should  be  spread  out  well.  One 
usually  has  to  be  satisfied  with  getting  the  roots  spread  into  a 
fan  shape,  but  even  this  requires  careful  attention  if  it  is  to  be 
well  done.  Here  again  the  ample  number  of  roots  on  the  straw- 
berry plant  makes  it  a  little  more  difficult  than  with  some  other 
plants  to  sec  that  the  roots  are  not  doubled  up  and  wadded 
into  the  holes. 

3.  The  soil  must  be  pressed  firmly  about  the  roots.  This  is 
no  more  important  than  with  any  other  kind  of  plant,  but  is 
perhaps  a  little  more  difficult  to  accomplish,  since  the  strawberry 
plant  has  rather  a  bushy  root  system.  It  will  usually  be  found 
necessary  to  keep  constantly  after  the  setters  to  see  that  this 
firming  of  the  soil  is  properly  done.  A  good  test  to  apply  is  to 
take  hold  of  the  top  of  the  plant  and  pull  gently,  and  if  it  has 
not  been  set  firmly  enough  it  will  pull  out  very  readily,  and  the 
one  who  set  it  can  be  cautioned  to  put  in  more  pressure. 


SETTING  TEAMS 


Fig.   46. — Setting  strawberry  plants.     One  man  to  drop  the  plants  and  two    men    to   set. 
Roots   of   plants   left    wet. 


Fig.  47. — The  planting  machine  is  sometimes  used  in  setting  strawberry  plants.    The  plants 
are  set,  watered  and  fertilized  in  the  one  operation. 

4.  Leave  the  soil  loose  on  top.  This  means  that  after  the 
soil  has  been  pressed  about  the  plant  to  make  it  fiiTa,  just  a  little 
loose  soil  shall  be  placed  on  the  surface  to  prevent  evaporation. 
It  is  very  easily  done,  but  is  very  helpful  in  keeping  the  soil 
about  the  plant  in  good  condition. 

In  the  actual  operation  of  setting  the  plant  the  hand,  or 


92 


SETTING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 


trowel,  is  thrust  into  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches 
and  the  soil  drawn  towards  the  operator,  with  the  other  hand 
the  plant  is  then  slipped  into  the  hole  thus  opened,  spreading 
the  roots  as  much  as  possible,  but  holding  the  crown  of  the  plant 
just  a  little  higher  than  it  is  expected  to  be  when  set.  The  soil 
is  then  allowed  to  fall  back  against  the  plant  and  at  the  same 
time  the  crown  is  lowered  a  little,  which  spreads  the  roots  still 
more.  Then  both  hands  are  used  to  press  the  soil  firmly  about 
the  roots;  and  lastly,  wath  the  fingers  spread  out  to  make  a  sort 
of  rake,  the  hands  are  drawn  past  the  plant,  one  on  either  side 


-Strawberry  plants  set  at  various  depths;  left  hand  plant  set  too  deep;  middle  one 
too  shallow;  right  hand  just  right. 


of  it,  to  leave  the  surface  soil  loose.  Of  course,  every  setter 
acquires  his  own  little  variations  as  one  does  in  any  operation. 
The  Spade  Method, — Many  growers  use  a  spade  in  setting 
their  beds  and  usually  have  two  men,  or  a  man  and  a  boy,  work 
together.  The  man  handles  the  spade  and  the  boy  the  plants. 
The  spade  is  thrust  down  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  and 
to  a  depth  of  about  six  or  eight  inches.  The  handle  is  then 
pushed  forward  and  the  plant  slipped  down  by  the  boy  into  the 
hole  thus  opened  up,  being  careful  to  spread  the  roots  out  as 
much  as  possible.  The  spade  is  then  withdrawn  and  the  earth 
firmed  down  about  the  roots  either  by  inserting  the  spade  into 
the  earth  a  few  inches  in  front  of  the  plant  and  pressing  it  back- 
ward, or  by  the  man  stepping  just  in  front  of  the  plant  as  he 


QUESTIONS  93 

goes  forward  to   set  in  Lis   spado   for   the  next  jDlant,    or  by 
both  methods. 

Planting  Machines, — Some  growers  who  operate  in  a  large 
way  use  planting  machines  such  as  the  one  shown  in  figure  47. 
These  machines  are  designed  and  used  more  for  vegetable  and 
tobacco  setting,  and  the  roots  of  the  strawberry  plant  cannot  be 
spread  out  quite  as  satisfactorily  as  in  some  of  the  hand  methods, 
nor  can  they  bo  set  quite  so  accurately  as  to  depth,  but  surpris- 
ingly good  results  are  sometimes  secured  by  it. 

Plants  with  Soil  About  the  Roots. — With  potted  plants  or 
with  the  method  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter  of  taking- 
some  earth  with  the  plants  (either  in  a  transplanter  or  merely 
as  a  "  sod  ")  the  holes  for  the  reception  of  the  plants  are  opened 
by  hand  where  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  or  with  a  hoc  or 
trowel  if  it  is  more  compact,  or  with  a  special  implement  in  the 
case  of  the  transplanter.  The  principal  thing  to  giuird  against 
in  all  these  methods  is  leaving  a  hole  underneath  the  plant.  If 
the  soil  is  in  first-class  condition,  mellow  and  moist,  there  is 
likely  to  be  little  difficulty;  but  with  unfavorable  soil  condi- 
tions and  without  constant  vigilance,  it  is  sure  to  happen,  and 
one  loses  all  the  hoped-for  advantage  of  not  gi\dng  his  plants 
any  set-back. 

QUESTIONS 

.   I.  Describe  the  hill  system  of  growing  strawberries.     Did  you  ever  see  a 
bed  set  in  this  system? 

2.  Describe  tlie  hedge-row  system  of  setting  strawberries. 

3.  Do  you  think  this  is  a  good  system?     Why? 

4.  Describe  the  matted-row  system  of  setting  strawberries. 

5.  Which  of  tliese  systems  would  you  use  and  why? 
0.  Describe  the  marking  oflF  of  a  strawberry  bed. 

7.  How  would  you  make  the  holes  for  the  plants? 

8.  Describe  the  setting  of  strawberry  plants. 

0.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  planting  machine  used  to  set  strawlierries? 
10.  Describe    the    niethod    of    setting    strawberries    with    some    soil    about 
their  roots. 


CHAPTER  XI 
CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  STRAWBERRIES 

Thorough  cultivation  of  the  strawberry  bed  is  absolutely 
essential  to  success.  In  most  cases  this  cultivation  ought  to 
begin  just  as  soon  as  the  bed  is  set  and  continue  well  into  the 
autumn;  in  fact,  just  as  long  as  the  plants  are  growing. 

There  are  three  principal  objects  to  be  secured  by  this  culti- 
vation. The  first  is  to  keep  down  the  weeds,  which  is,  of  course, 
the  first  thing  (and  often  the  only  one)  that  most  people  think 
of  in  connection  with  cultivation.  It  is  particularly  important 
with  strawberries,  since  they  are  rather  shallow-rooted ;  and  the 
loss  of  moisture  through  the  weeds,  as  well  as  their  competition 
for  air  and  sunshine,  is  a  serious  handicap.  And  the  more  crops 
it  is  expected  to  take  from  the  bed  before  it  is  abandoned  the 
more  important  it  becomes  to  start  it  off  with  as  few  weeds 
as  possible. 

The  second  object  of  cultivating  the  strawberry  bed  is  to 
conserv^e  soil  moisture,  and  this  is  exceptionally  important  with 
this  crop.  Hardly  a  season  passes  in  most  sections  when  the 
crop  is  not  cut  short  more  or  less  through  lack  of  soil  moisture, 
and  the  amount  lost  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  soil 
(as  well  as  that  pumped  out  by  weeds)  is  tremendous. 

Lastly,  a  great  deal  of  plant  food  is  liberated  through  culti- 
vation, and  this  is  very  important  with  strawberries  since  their 
roots  do  not  forage  widely  and  must  therefore  be  supplied  with 
an  abundance  of  fertility  in  the  relatively  small  amount  of  soil 
from  which  they  draw  their  food. 

The  best  implements  for  tillage  will  vary  somewhat  with 
localities,  soil  conditions,  and  systems  of  setting,  but  the  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important  types. 

Wherever  possible  the  cultivation  should  be  done  by  horse 

labor,  since  this  greatly  reduces  the  expense.     On  very  large 

plantations  the  two-horse  cultivators  are  used,  but  for  the  most 

part  some  type  of  one-horse  cultivator  is  best.    A  cultivator  with 

94 


HAND  HOES  95 

fairly  large  teeth  (usually  five  or  seven)  will  be  found  most 
satisfactory  (Fig.  9)  on  heavy  soils,  which  are  always  more 
difficult  to  work  up  satisfactorily,  or  during  wet  seasons  when 
it  is  desired  to  dry  out  the  soil,  or  when  the  weeds  have  been 
allowed  to  get  a  start  and  have  become  so  large  as  not  to  be  up- 
rooted easily.  Where  these  conditions  do  not  obtain,  i.e.,  on  the 
lighter  types  of  soil  which  stay  more  mellow  and  are  more  easily 
worked  up;  or  where  the  object  is  to  conserve  moisture  rather 
than  to  dry  out  the  soil  (and  this  is  more  commonly  the  situa- 
tion) ;  and  when  the  gTower  keeps  ahead  of  the  work  and  kills 
the  weeds  just  as  they  are  germinating,  which  is  the  only  satis- 
factory way  to  handle  them  ;  where  any  of  these  conditions  occur, 
then  either  the  very  narrow  tooth  or  the  spike  tooth  is  the  best 
one  for  the  work  (Figs.  10  and  49 ).  In  order  to  do  the  best  work 
tlie  grower  ought,  therefore,  to  have  one  of  each  type  of  culti- 
vator on  hand,  since  his  conditions  as  to  weeds  and  moisture 
are  bound  to  change  more  or  less  during  any  season. 

The  same  general  considerations  would  hold  in  selecting  a 
two-horse  cultivator ;  one  ought  either  to  have  two  implements, 
or  else  one  which  has  two  sets  of  teeth. 

For  the  hill  system  with  close  rows,  where  horse  labor  can- 
not be  employed,  some  sort  of  wheel  hoe  should  be  used  for  as 
large  a  part  of  the  work  as  possible  (Fig.  50).  These  imple- 
ments are  equipped  with  many  different  kinds  of  teeth  so  that 
one  can  use  a  very  narrow  set  or  a  heavier  set  as  circumstances 
may  demand.  There  are  also  wings  for  use  when  one  has  rather 
large  weeds  to  contend  with,  but  does  not  wish  to  cultivate 
deeply.  For  this  latter  purpose  many  growers  use  one  of  the 
scufile  hoes  (Figs.  51  and  52),  and  when  a  man  becomes  expert 
with  one  of  them  it  is  surprising  what  excellent  work  can  be 
done  with  it  and  how  little  damage  is  done  to  the  plants.  Under 
most  conditions  of  land  and  labor,  however,  the  wheel  hoe  is  to 
be  preferred  to  the  scufile  hoe. 

Hand  Hoes. — Whether  the  main  part  of  the  cultivating  is 
done  by  the  horse  cultivator  or  the  wheel  hoe,  a  certain  amount 
of  hand  hoeing  is  going  to  be  necessary,  and  for  this  work  one 
ought  to  have  several  different  types  of  hoes,  to  suit  varying 


96         CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  STRAWBERRIES 


Pig.  so. — Wheel-hoe  in  use  among  strawberries  grown  by  the  hill  system.     This  implement 
is  a  great  labor-saver  where  horse  cultivation  cannot  be  practised. 


HAND  HOES 


97 


Fig.  si. — Types  of  scufHe  hoes  sometimes  used  in  strawberry  beds  grown  by  the  hill 
system.  A  man  who  is  expert  in  the  use  of  such  a  hoe  can  work  almost  as  fast  as  he  can  walk 
down  the  row. 


''  -'--^**'' 


:^."^  ^-/'V  >.««.->  „^. 


-^: 


r- 


Fig.    52. — Scuffle  hoe,  with  wheel  attachment  in  use  amoiui 
hill  system. 


■s  grown  by   the 


98        CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  STRAWBERRIES 

conditions.  For  the  earlier  hoeing  while  the  plants  are  still 
relatively  small  and  far  apart  leaving  plenty  of  room  for  the 
work,  a  hoe  with  a  wide  but  shallow  blade  (Fig.  14)  will  be 
found  very  satisfactory.  With  snch  a  hoe  one  covers  a  gTeat 
deal  of  space  and  does  not  cnt  into  the  ground  deeply,  but  gives 
the  desired  shallow  culture. 

An  even  better  type  of  hoe  for  these  conditions,  unless  one 
has  many  and  somewhat  large  weeds  to  contend  with,  is  that 
shown  in  figure  14  (next  to  the  right).  As  will  be  seen,  it  has 
the  blade  cut  up  into  several  broad  flat  teeth.  The  great  ad- 
vantage of  this  hoe,  as  compared  with  the  ordinary  type,  is  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  used.  One  can  cover  the  same  ground 
with  very  much  less  labor  than  with  the  old  type  of  hoe.  It 
will  be  a  surprise  to  anyone  who  has  never  used  one  of  them  to 
see  what  a  difference  there  is,  and  the  soil  is  also  left  in  fine 
tilth  by  it.  Its  only  defect  is  that  it  is  not  quite  so  effective 
with  the  larger  weeds,  tending  to  dodge  some  of  them.  But,  of 
course,  one  ought  not  to  have  large  weeds  in  his  strawberry  bed. 

As  the  plants  increase  in  size  and  the  runners  begin  to  set, 
so  that  there  is  less  and  less  space  left  for  the  hoe,  a  different 
type  may  be  needed,  one  with  a  narrower  blade  and,  in  order  to 
get  weight,  with  a  deeper  blade.  Some  growers  even  prefer  a 
triangular  blade  that  will  give  a  fairly  sharp  point  that  may  be 
used  among  the  plants  (Fig.  14). 

The  program  of  cultivating  is,  of  course,  going  to  vary  con- 
siderably with  conditions,  but  the  following  will  usually  be 
found  satisfactory :  Begin  cultivation  just  as  soon  as  the  bed  is 
set.  Someone  has  said  that  a  horse  ought  to  be  kept  standing- 
hitched  to  a  cultivator  ready  to  start  in  the  instant  the  plants 
are  set,  and  this  fairly  well  expresses  the  case.  The  only  condi- 
tions under  which  this  advice  is  not  sound  is  where  the  soil  is 
very  light  indeed,  and  the  sand  may  drift  over  the  plants,  but  it 
is  doubtful  if  such  soil  ought  to  be  used  for  strawberries.  Cer- 
tainly it  ought  not  if  better  soil  is  obtainable. 

For  this  first  cultivating  a  heavy-toothed  cultivator  (Fig.  9 ) 
should  be  used,  as  the  soil  will  have  been  made  rather  compact 
by  the  trampling  of  the  men  in  setting  out  the  plants  and  needs 


CULTIVATE  AFTER  RAINS  99 

a  thorough  working  up.  The  large  teeth  also  go  deeper  and  tend 
to  more  fully  "  fit  "  the  soil.  Moreover,  at  this  time  soil  mois- 
ture may  be  over-abundant,  and  some  drying  out  of  the  soil  may 
be  advantageous. 

Hoeing  After  Cultivation. — Immediately  following  this  cul- 
tivation the  bed  should  be  hoed,  using  preferably  the  "  rake  " 
type  of  hoe  (Fig.  14).  There  are  two  especial  advantages  of 
letting  this  hoeing  follow  rather  than  precede  the  cultivating. 
In  the  first  place,  it  gives  an  opportunity  to  uncover  any  plants 
which  may  have  been  covered  up  by  the  cultivator,  without 
going  over  the  field  especially  for  that  purpose;  and  in  the 
second  place  less  hoeing  is  required,  since  only  a  very  narrow 
strip  is  left  by  the  cultivator.  This  latter  point  may  not  appeal 
to  one  who  has  not  had  experience  in  the  matter,  but  it  is  always 
difiicult  to  get  lioers  to  confine  their  work  to  the  very  narrow 
strip  along  the  row  of  plants  which  will  not  be  reached  by 
the  cultivator. 

Cultivation  in  Both  Directions. — Where  the  bed  has  been 
marked  in  both  directions  so  that  the  plants  "  row  "  both  ways 
(Fig.  53),  it  is  possible  to  use  the  cultivator  both  ways  during 
the  early  part  of  the  season,  and  thus  obviate  to  a  very  large 
extent  the  use  of  a  hoe. 

Keep  a  Dust  Mulch.— In  most  of  the  following  cultivation 
the  ideal  ought  to  be  to  keep  a  good  dust  mulch  to  a  depth  of 
not  over  one  or  two  inches,  and  to  leave  the  surface  of  the  land 
as  nearly  level  as  possible.  In  order  to  do  this  the  small-toothed 
cultivator  should  be  used  as  far  as  possible,  and  used  frequently, 
thus  destroying  the  weeds  as  they  germinate,  which  is  very 
easily  done,  instead  of  allowing  them  to  reach  considerable  size 
when  it  is  more  difiicult  to  kill  them  and  requires  larger  teeth 
on  the  cultivator,  thus  leaving  the  land  ridgy. 

The  exception  to  the  foregoing  rule  would  be  where  the  soil 
is  so  wet  as  to  need  drying  out,  or  where  the  weeds  have  gained 
some  headway,  or  on  heavy  soils.  In  any  of  these  cases  the  large- 
toothed  cultivator  should  be  selected. 

Cultivate  After  Rains.— The  bed  ought  also  to  be  cultivated 
as  soon  after  each  heavy  rain  as  the  soil  is  in  good  condition. 


100       CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING   STRAWBERRIES 

Heavy  rains,  of  course,  firm  the  soil  down,  thus  establishing 
capillary  connection  between  the  surface  and  the  soil  beneath, 
and  causing  loss  of  moisture.  They  also  drive  out  the  air  and 
render  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  poorer.  For  these 
reasons,  as  soon  after  the  rain  or  irrigation  as  the  soil  has  dried 
out  enough  so  that  it  breaks  up  in  good  condition,  the  bed  ought 
to  be  cultivated  (Fig.  54). 

Cultivation    in    Dry    Weather. — Another    point    frequently 


'i:^,::! 


Fig.  53. — Strawberries  grown  by  the  hill-systcn 
WashinRton.  Liberal  fertilizing  and  thorough  cultiv; 
combination  a  success. 


overlooked  is  the  desirability  of  cultivating  the  bed  in  dry 
weather,  even  though  there  may  be  no  crust  on  the  soil,  and  no 
weeds  growing  in  the  bed.  That  is  to  say,  the  dust  mulch 
settles  do^vn  and  becomes  too  compact,  even  though  there  may 
have  been  no  rain  since  the  last  cultivation,  and  it  therefore 
needs  an  occasional  renewing,  by  means  of  the  cultivator.  In 
this  work  it  is  especially  desirable  to  use  a  cultivator  with  small 
teeth  so  that  we  may  lose  as  little  moisture  as  possible  in  the 
operation  of  reestablishing  the  mulch. 


SPRING  CULTIVATION 


101 


Cultivation  to  Continue. — Cultivation  of  the  above  type, 
modified  to  suit  local  conditions,  is  continued  until  heavy  frosts 
or  actual  freezing  weather  arrives,  or  in  sections  where  the 
ground  does  not  freeze,  as  long  as  any  of  the  reasons  for  culti- 
vation, which  have  already  been  discussed,  may  make  it  neces- 
sary, which  in  some  sections  may  be  practically  the  whole  year. 

With  the  matted-row  system  the  strip  cultivated  is  gradu- 
ally narrowed  as  the  runners  set,  until  it  is  not  over  eighteen 
inches  or  two  feet  in  width,  which  means  that  the  plants  occupy 


Fig.  54. — Flume  for  carrying  water  to  irrigate  strawberries.  Hood  River,  Oregon.  In 
dry  seasons  irrication  is  a  great  help  even  in  sections  where  the  practice  is  not  generally 
common.  It  brings  the  berries  along  faster,  thus  getting  them  on  the  market  in  advance 
of  competitors. 

from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  feet  in  width,  depending 
on  the  distance  apart  of  the  rows. 

Tillage  usually  stops  with  the  approach  of  cold  weather  and 
is  not  again  renewed  until  after  the  crop  has  been  harvested ; 
then  the  bed  is  renovated,  as  discussed  in  Chapter  XV,  and  a 
plan  of  cultivation  similar  to  that  just  outlined  is  carried  out. 
In  milder  sections,  as  already  suggested,  cultivation  is  carried 
on  during  the  most  or  all  of  the  year. 

Spring  Cultivation. — Occasionally,  even  in  our  more  north- 
ern sections,  some  spring  cultivation  is  attempted.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  usually  to  be  advised,  largely  on  account  of  its  ex- 
pense.    In  order  to  do  it  the  mulch  (if  one  has  been  applied  as 


102      CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  STRAWBERRIES 

is  iisuallj  the  case  in  these  sections)  must  be  taken  out  of  the 
way  while  the  cultivation  is  being  done.  This  is  usually  accom- 
plished by  removing  the  mulch  altogether  from  the  bed  and  re- 
turning it  again  after  the  cultivating  season  is  over.  The  alter- 
native is  to  do  one  row  at  a  time,  taking  off  the  mulch  from  the 
first  space  and  cultivating  it  thoroughly,  then  putting  the  mulch 
from  the  second  space  onto  this  first  space  and  cultivating  the 
second  space,  and  so  on  across  the  bed.  While  this  will  reduce 
somewhat  the  cost  of  handling  the  nmleh,  it  is  slow  and  tedious, 
and  allows  of  only  the  one  more  or  less  thorough  cultivation, 
while  if  the  mulch  is  removed  entirely  from  the  bed  for  a  time, 
the  whole  bed  can,  during  that  period,  be  cultivated  repeatedly 
and  a  much  better  condition  of  the  soil  can  be  thereby  secured. 
With  the  vast  majority  of  growers  no  attempt  at  spring  cul- 
tivation is  made,  which  is  fairly  good  evidence  that  it  is  not  to 
be  recommended.  The  aims  of  this  spring  tillage  are,  of  course, 
the  same  as  those  already  outlined  for  the  earlier  tillage,  viz., 
to  eradicate  weeds  and  to  help  the  supply  of  plant  food  and  of 
moisture  in  the  soil,  and  it  would  seem  much  better  to  get  at 
these  in  some  other  way.  It  ought  to  be  possible  to  keep  the 
weeds  under  control  by  thorough  tillage  during  the  previous 
season  and  by  pulling  out  a  few  of  the  large  ones  which  may 
develop  the  second  spring;  the  plant  food  can  be  supplied  better 
and  more  cheaply  by  having  the  soil  fertile  in  the  first  place 
and  then  by  supplementing  this  by  an  application  of  commercial 
fertilizer  in  the  spring.  The  moisture  supply  can  generally  be 
taken  care  of  if  there  is  plenty  of  humus  in  the  soil  to  begin  with 
and  if  a  good  mulch  is  applied  to  prevent  evaporation. 

FERTILIZIXG 

There  is  perhaps  no  phase  of  strawberry  growing  that  varies 
so  much  as  the  practice  in  the  use  of  fertilizers.  Some  growers 
use  none  at  all,  and  other  growers  are  among  the  most  liberal  of 
any  class  of  farmers  in  their  applications.  The  experimental 
evidence  on  the  subject  is  also  conflicting  and  even  contradictory. 

Most  writers  on  the  subject  take  refuge  in  the  suggestion 
that  "  it  depends  on  circumstances,"  and  that  "  the  grower 
should  form  his  own  conclusions,   experimenting  to   find   out 


LIME  TO  GROW  CLOVER  103 

what  his  soil  needs."  Both  of  these  are  safe  suggestions,  but 
are  rather  disheartening  to  the  beginner  or  to  anyone  else  who 
wants  infonnation. 

Principles  Involved. — There  se^m,  however,  to  be  a  number 
of  principles  and  practices  that  are  fairly  well  established  and 
pretty  universally  accepted.  These  we  may  well  consider  first, 
and  then  turn  our  attention  to  a  few  specific  cases  which  will 
illustrate  the  practice  of  successful  growers. 

1.  Have  Soil  Fertile  in  Advance. — To  begin  with,  all  agree 
that  the  soil  should  be  very  fertile  before  the  bed  is  set,  that  no 
amount  of  amendments  and  additions  at  the  time  the  bed  is  set 
and  later,  on  can  make  up  entirely  for  lack  of  fertility  in  the 
soil  beforehand.  This  has  already  been  discussed  in  the  chapter 
on  soils,  but  can  hardly  be  over-emphasized.  It  means  that  the 
strawberry  crop  should  be  planned  for  several  years  beforehand 
if  one  is  to  get  the  best  results,  and  that  barnyard  manure  and 
leguminous  cover  crops  should  figure  prominently  in  the  program. 

2.  Lime  to  Grow  Clover. — Secondly  it  seems  to  be  gen- 
erally accepted  that  the  strawberry  is  either  indifferent  to  or  is 
damaged  by  any  large  amounts  of  lime  in  the  soil,  preferring,  at 
least,  a  neutral  and  probably  an  acid  soil.  There  are  two  diffi- 
culties in  meeting  this  situation.  One  is  that  a  clover  sod  is 
very  valuable  in  preparing  land  for  the  strawberry  bed,  and 
clover  requires  lime  if  it  is  to  make  a  growth  that  is  at  all  satis- 
factory. To  meet  this  difficulty,  apply  the  lime  just  previous  to 
the  sowing  of  the  clover  and  hold  the  clover  over  for  two  crops, 
plowing  it  under,  when  the  land  is  finally  taken  over  for  the 
strawberry  bed,  with  as  much  growth  of  clover  tops  as  possible. 
The  ideal  way  is  to  cut  the  crop  of  clover  the  second  year  fairly 
early  and  then  plow  do\\ai  the  second  crop  or  "  rowen  "  in  the 
autumn  just  as  it  is  in  bloom.  With  this  treatment  all  effects 
of  the  lime  will  have  disappeared  before  the  strawberry  bed  is 
set,  and  one  will  get  all  the  benefits  of  the  clover.  The  only 
objection  to  this  is  that  it  means  an  extra  year  before  the  land 
can  be  reset  to  strawberries. 

The  second  difficulty  in  meeting  the  preference  of  the  straw- 
berry for  an  acid  soil  is  not  so  serious  and  comes  only  to  those 
gi'owers  who  want  to  use  wood  ashes  as  a  part  of  the  fertilizer 


104      CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  STRAWBERRIES 

formula.  As  is  well  known,  ashes  carry  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  lime,  an  average  content  being  about  400  to  600 
pounds  per  ton.  This,  however,  is  not  a  large  amount,  and  if 
the  soil  is  well  supplied  with  humus  (which,  of  course,  tends 
toward  acidity)  there  will  usually  be  no  difliculty. 

3.  Good  Fertility  is  Lasting. — In  the  third  place,  practically 
all  authorities  agree  that  the  need  of  and  benefit  from  fertilizers 
is  greater  the  second  year  than  the  first.  This  is  just  what  one 
might  expect,  since  the  first  season  the  soil  is  fertile  to  begin 
with,  it  has  been  very  well  prepared  (much  better  than  is  pos- 
sible where  the  bed  is  renovated  and  put  into  shape  for  the 
second  crop),  and  cultivation  can  be  much  more  thorough  since 
there  are,  especially  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  much 
fewer  plants  to  interfere. 

4.  Need  of  Nitrogen. — In  the  fourth  place,  nitrogen  is  uni- 
versally recognized  as  the  fertilizer  element  which  will  produce 
the  most  marked"  results  and  which  must  therefore  be  used  with 
the  greatest  degree  of  judgment.  The  others  may  not  be  needed 
in  a  given  bed,  but  their  presence  in  excess  is  very  seldom 
thought  to  do  any  damage;  and  conversely  failure  to  apply 
them  may  not  lead  to  such  serious  results  since  most  soils  are 
naturally  well  supplied  with  them.  But  nitrogen  must  be  had 
in  abundance,  otherwise  the  crop  will  be  cut  short.  Yet  if  it  is 
applied  in  too  great  quantities,  particularly  in  the  form  of 
nitrate  of  soda,  and  at  the  wrong  time,  particularly  just  previ- 
ous to  fruiting,  more  harm  than  good  may  result. 

Fertilizing  Materials. — The  most  popular  materials  for  the 
fertilizing  of  strawberry  beds  are  the  following: 

Nitrogenous. — Barnyard  manure  is  usually  held  in  very 
high  esteem  by  strawberry  men  and  wherever  it  is  available  is 
generally  used  more  or  less. 

It  has  two  particularly  A'aluable  characteristics  for  use  on 
this  crop.  First  and  most  important,  it  carries  a  very  large 
amount  of  humus-forming  materials  which  render  the  soil 
mellow  and  increase  its  water-holding  power,  which  are  both 
very  important  considerations.  Secondly  it  is  strong  on  the 
nitrogen  side  (which  is  desirable  with  strawberries),  but  is  more 
or  less  of  a  complete  fertilizer.     There  is  little  question  that 


PHOSPHATIC  MATERIALS  105 

larger  and  better  crops  of  strawberries  can  be  grown  where  some 
barnyard  niannre  is  available  than  is  possible  without  it.  The 
manure  is  often  applied  in  advance  of  setting  so  that  it  may 
become  well  rooted.  This  is  most  important  in  regions  having 
hot,  dry  summers. 

Green  Manure. — Where  barnyard  manure  is  not  available 
recourse  is  usually  had  to  gi'een  manure  crops  which,  if  the 
right  plants  are  chosen,  have  to  a  certain  extent  the  same  char- 
acteristics as  barnyard  manure.  Of  course,  for  this  purpose 
some  leguminous  crop  should  be  chosen.  When  but  a  single 
season,  or  part  of  a  season,  is  available  for  its  growth,  either  soy- 
beans, vetch,  cowpeas,  or  Canada  field  peas  are  usually  selected. 
If  more  time  can  be  had  (at  least  a  whole  season  and  preferably 
two)  one  or  more  of  the  clovers  are  sown.  There  can  be  no 
question  of  the  value  of  these  crops  and  they  ought  to  be  used 
wherever  possible. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. — For  a  quick-acting  commercial  fertilizer 
nitrate  of  soda  is  almost  always  used.  Where  it  is  desired  to 
stimulate  gTOwth,  as  in  the  case  of  an  old  bed  that  is  being 
renovated  when  the  owner  wishes  to  hustle  along  the  production 
of  new  leaves  and  plants,  it  will  give  excellent  results.  It  should 
be  used  with  care,  however,  as  it  produces  a  luxuriant,  soft 
gi'owth  and  if  used  too  freely  and  too  near  the  fruiting  period 
is  likely  to  make  the  berries  too  large  and  soft,  and  sometimes  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  fruit  set. 

For  a  more  slowly  acting  fertilizer  tankage,  dried  blood,  and 
cottonseed  meal  are  all  used,  the  latter  mostly  in  the  South. 
The  most  satisfactory  type  of  growth  is  likely  to  be  secured  by 
combining  nitrate  of  soda  with  one  of  these  latter  fertilizers, 
thus  carrying  gTowth  along  more  evenly  throughout  the  season. 

Phosphatic  Materials. — As  a  source  of  phosphoric  acid  prob- 
ably acid  phosphate  is  the  most  popular  material.  The  great 
advantage  it  has  over  other  materials  is  that  it  is  reasonably 
soluble,  and  is  therefore  relatively  quick  acting,  and  this  is 
generally  desirable,  particularly  where  only  one  crop  of  fruit  is 
taken  from  the  bed.  This  solubility  is  also  a  valuable  charac- 
teristic in  applying  fertilizers  to  a  renovated  bed,  since  there  is 
not  the  chance  here  to  incorporate  the  fertilizer  with  the  soil  and 


106       CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  STRAWBERRIES 

one  must  depend  more  on  the  materials  being  washed  down  abont 
the  roots  of  the  phmts. 

Bone  Meal. — Next  in  popnlarity  would  probably  stand  bone 
meal.  Some  growers  will  nse  no  other  material  for  phosphoric 
acid.  It  is  certainly  a  reliable  source  and  where  it  is  applied  to 
the  soil  previous  to  the  setting  of  the  plants  so  that  it  can  be 
worked  into  the  soil,  or  where  it  is  used  on  other  crops  in  a 
rotation  for  strawberries,  it  will  be  found  excellent.  It  carries 
some  lime,  of  course,  but  not  enough,  nor  in  such  condition  as 
to  affect  very  much  the  acidity  of  the  soil. 

Potash  Materials. — For  potash,  wood  ashes  and  muriate  of 
potash  are  very  commonly  used,  much  more  so  than  any  other 
materials.  Where  wood  ashes  of  good  quality  can  be  had  at  a 
reasonable  figure  they  are  very  commonly  used,  and  a  dressing 
of  a  ton  per  acre  is  usually  considered  satisfactory. 

Muriate  of  potash  has  the  advantage  over  the  sulfate  (which, 
is  sometimes  used  for  strawberries  and  is  generally  preferred  for 
orchards)  as  it  is  cheap  and  as  it  will  help  to  overcome  the 
use  of  lime  or  wood  ashes,  if  these  are  applied,  since  it  tends 
towards  acidity  of  the  soil. 

Methods  of  Applying  Fertilizers. — Barnyard  manure  is 
generally  applied  to  strawberry  land  previous  to  the  season  in 
which  the  bed  is  set,  and  this  is  decidedly  important  if  the 
manure  is  at  all  strawy.  If  the  crop  preceding  the  berries  is 
such  as  will  be  benefited  by  the  manure,  then  it  may  be  applied 
to  that  crop.  If  manure  cannot  be  used  on  the  previous  crop, 
as  in  the  case  of  potatoes,  then  a  common  custom  and  a  good  one 
is  to  apply  the  manure  in  the  autumn  and  plow  it  under  as 
shallow  as  possible,  and  still  get  it  well  covered ;  then  in  the 
spring  replow  the  land  considerably  more  deeply  than  it  was 
plowed  in  the  fall.  This  brings  the  manure  (which  has  in  the 
meantime  broken  down  and  begun  to  rot)  just  a  little  below 
the  surface  and  in  exactly  the  right  position  for  the  roots  of  the 
strawberry  plants. 

Well-rotted  Manure. — -Wliere  very  well-rotted,  manure  is 
used  it  may  be  applied  in  the  spring  when  the  land  is  being  fitted 
for  the  bed.  It  may  either  be  spread  on  the  land  before  it  is 
plowed  and  turned  under,  or  else  be  spread  after  plowing  and 


FERTILIZER  FORMULAS  FOR  STRAWBERRIES  107 

worked  into  the  soil.  The  objection  to  the  former  method  is 
that  if  the  Land  is  plowed  deeply,  as  is  generally  best  so  as  to 
form  as  large  a  moistnre  reservoir  as  possible,  the  manure  is 
buried  so  deeply  that  the  strawberry  plants  do  not  get  the 
best  nse  of  it. 

Amounts  of  manure  applied  will,  of  course,  vary  greatly, 
principally  with  the  amounts  of  other  fertilizers  applied  and 
with  the  fertility  already  in  the  soil,  but  usually  from  ten  to 
twenty  tons  (or  cords  or  loads)  per  acre  are  considered  a 
good  dressing. 

If  a  manure  spreader  is  available  it  should  by  all  means  be 
used,  as  the  manure  can  be  applied  much  more  evenly.  But  if 
not  it  should  be  spread  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  in  particular 
all  large  lumps  should  be  avoided. 

^Yith  tlie  other  fertilizers  several  different  methods  of  apply- 
ing are  in  vogue.  When  fertilizers  are  applied  the  spring  that 
the  bed  is  set,  they  may  be  broadcasted  and  worked  into  the  soil 
before  the  plants  are  set.  In  this  case  they  are  best  sown  with  a 
fertilizer  sower  (Fig.  12),  but  may  be  broadcasted  by  hand. 
Or  they  may  be  applied  after  the  plants  are  set,  in  which  case 
they  are  distributed  by  hand  along  either  side  of  the  row  of 
plants.  Sometimes  they  are  spread  on  the  surface  of  the  soil 
and  worked  in  by  the  future  cultivation  and  hoeing,  and  some- 
times in  shallow  furrows  opened  for  the  purpose.  They  are 
often  applied  along  the  row  by  a  hand-operated  fertilizer 
sower  (Fig.  13). 

The  great  advantage  of  applying  the  materials  before  the 
plants  are  set  is  that  it  can  be  done  much  more  cheaply ;  while 
the  advantage  of  putting  it  on  after  the  plants  are  set  is  that  all 
the  fertilizer  is  put  near  the  plants  where  it  can  be  used  by  them, 
while  in  the  other  method  a  considerable  part  of  it  falls  between 
the  rows  where  it  will  be  of  little  or  no  service  to  the  plants.  It 
is,  therefore,  largely  a  question  of  the  cost  of  fertilizer  vs.  the 
cost  of  labor. 

Fertilizer  Formulas  for  Strawberries. — As  illustrations  of 
the  formulas  which  are  used  by  successful  strawberry  growers 
the  following  may  be  helpful : 


108 


CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  STRAWBERRIES 


1.    1000  lbs.  acid  phosphate 
500  lbs.  tankage 
100  lbs.  nitrate  of  |ocla 
400  lbs.  muriate   of  potash 


500  lbs.  bone  nieal 
250  lbs.  tankage 
500  lbs.  ashes 


KiOO  lbs.  tankage 
1000  lbs.  basic  slag  or  bone  meal 
400  lbs.  high    grade    sulfate    of 
potash 


2.     100  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda 
600  lbs.  tankage 
1000  lbs.  bone  meal 
600  lbs.  low    grade     sulfate    of 
potash 

This  last  formula  is  applied  one-half  within  about  two 
weeks  after  the  bed  is  set  and  the  other  half  about  a  month  later. 
It  represents  the  most  liberal  fertilizing  and  is  only  to  be 
recommended  where  the  plantation  is  given  the  very  best  of 
care  in  all  respects  and  very  large  yields  are  expected. 

A  3-7-9  Fertilizer.— The  R.  M.  Kellogg  Company,  of  Three 
Rivers,  Michigan,  who  are  among  the  largest  growers  of  straw- 
berries in  the  country,  suggest  a  3-7-9  fertilizer;  that  is,  3  per 
cent,  nitrogen,  7  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  9  per  cent,  pot- 
ash. These  amounts  can  be  secured  in  various  ways,  but  the  fol- 
lowing are  suggested : 

Suggestions  far  a  3-7-9  Fertilizer 


Kind  of  fertilizer 

Principal 
fertilizer 
element 
Per  cent 

Principal 
element 
per  acre 

Amount  (  f 
fertilizer 
per  acre 
Pounds 

Mixture  No.  1-1000  pounds  per  acre: 

15  N. 
12  N. 
23  P2O5 
50  K2O 

15 
15 
70 
90 

100 

125 

300 

ISO 

Total . 

705 

Filler 

295 

Mixture  No.  2-500  pounds  per  acre: 
Nitrate  of  soda      ....                  ... 

15  N. 
12  N. 
Ifi  P2O6 
48KoO 

35 
45 

1000 
50 

Dried  blood 

(33 

Acid  phosphate 

220 

Sulphate  of  potash 

94 

Total 

427 

FiUer 

73 

500 

QUESTIONS  109 

Use  fine  ground  peat  or  fine  ground  limestone  for  filler. 
The  filler  may  be  omitted  in  either  of  these  foi-mulas  without 
injuring  the  consistency  of  the  fertilizer,  but  if  this  is  done 
proportionately,  less  fertilizer  per  acre  would  be  applied ;  that 
is,  295  pounds  less  of  the  first  formula  or  73  pounds  of 
the  second. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  most  important  object  of  cultivation  in  a  strawberry  bed? 

2.  What  kind  of  cultivator  would  be  best  to  use  in  a  large  strawberry  bed? 

3.  Describe  the  cultivation  in  the  hill  system. 

4.  What  is  a  scuffle  hoe?    Did  you  ever  use  one? 

5.  What  is  the  best  t.^T^e  of  hand  hoe?     Why? 

fl.  Why  is  cultivation  important  in  a  strawberry  bed? 

7.  Why  would  you  cultivate  after  every  rain? 

S.  Is  it  necessary  to  cultivate  in  dry  weather  ? 

n.  When  would  you  cease  cultivation  in  your  section  and  why? 

10.  Would  you  cultivate  a  strawberry  bed  in  the  spring?     If  not,  why? 

11.  Would  you  use  lime  on  a  strawberry  bed? 

12.  \Miat  forms  of  nitrogen  would  you  use  on  a  strawberry  bed?     Why? 
l.S.  What  kinds  of  fertilizers  are  best  as  a  source  of  phosphoric  acid? 

14.  When  and  how  would  you  apply  fertilizers  to  a  strawberry  bed? 

15.  Oive  a  good  fertilizer  formula  for  a  strawberry  bed. 

IG.  Have  you  ever  used  fertilizers  on  strawberries?     If  so,  what  kinds? 


CHAPTER  XII 
OTHER  CARE  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

The  principal  other  work  on  the  strawberry  bed,  aside  from 
that  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter,  will  have  to  do  with  the 
management  of  the  runners.  This  work  will  vary  according  to 
variety  and  according  to  soil  conditions,  but  principally  accord- 
ing to  the  system  on  which  the  bed  is  set. 

Objects  of  Removing  Runners. — If  the  hill  system  is  used, 
then  all  nmners  must  be  removed  throughout  the  season.  One 
object  of  this  is  to  allow  all  of  the  strength  of  the  original  or 
mother  plants  to  go  to  the  forming  of  strong  crowns,  instead  of 
being  exhausted  in  the  formation  of  these  new  plants  on  the 
runners.  It  also  prevents  crowding  of  the  plants  which  further 
tends  towards  large,  sturdy,  prolific  cro^^^ls.  To  attain  these 
objects  in  the  highest  degree  the  sooner  the  runners  can  be  re- 
moved after  they  start  the  better.  This  means  constant  atten- 
tion to  see  that  the  work  is  not  neglected  and  a  good  deal  of 
actual  labor,  but  the  reward  comes,  or  is  expected  to  come,  in 
the  larger  and  finer  berries  grown  and  in  the  much  greater  yield. 

Methods  of  Removing  Runners. — In  the  removal  of  the 
runners  several  methods  are  practiced.  Wliere  the  work  is  kept 
well  in  hand  and  the  runners  are  removed  before  they  reach  any 
size  and  before  the  ninner  cords  become  tough,  they  can  per- 
haps be  pulled  off  by  hand  as  expeditiously  and  satisfactorily 
as  in  any  other  way.  The  principal  thing  to  guard  against  in 
this  method  is  to  see  that  the  roots  of  the  mother  plants  are  not 
disturbed  by  the  pulling  away  of  the  runners.  Wliile  the 
runners  are  small,  as  suggested,  and  if  not  too  many  are  pulled 
at  one  time,  there  will  usually  be  little  danger,  but  to  make  sure 
it  is  well  to  steady  the  mother  plant  with  the  other  hand. 

Use  of  a  Hoe. — An  excellent  method  of  removing  runners, 

and  one  which  ought  to  be  used  even  though  it  be  supplemented 

by  other  methods,  is  to  cut  them  away  with  the  hoe.     Whenever 

any  hoeing  is  done  the  numers  are  regarded  as  weeds  and  are 

110 


ESTABLISHING  THE  HEDGE  ROW  111 

cut  off  and  destroyed  like  any  other  weeds.  Usually  this  hoe- 
ing of  the  runners  during  cultivation  has  to  be  supplemented 
by  special  work  w-ith  the»  hoe  at  other  times  in  order  to  keep  the 
runners  down  as  thoroughly  as  they  ought  to  be. 

A  Dropper. — A  third  method  which  is  considerably  in  vogue 
where  the  hill  system  is  largely  practiced  is  the  use  of  a  special 
implement  called  a  dropper.  It  resembles  somewhat  a  post- 
hole  digger,  being  a  circular  piece  of  sheet  iron,  about  four  to 
six  inches  wide  and  sharpened  to  a  cutting  edge  on  one  side,  and 
with  a  straight  or  a  cross  handle  above.  Two  or  three  sizes  of 
these  are  kept  on  hand  for  use  on  the  plants  at  different  ages. 
The  usual  diameter  for  the  smallest  size  is  eight  or  nine  inches 
and  for  the  largest  size  perhaps  fifteen  inches.  Any  good  black- 
smith can  make  one.  The  cylinder  proper  is  made  of  a  strip  of 
sheet  iron  or  steel  four  to  six  inches  wide  and  long  enough  to 
give  the  required  diameter,  i.e.,  twenty-four  to  forty-live  inches 
long.  This  is  sharpened  on  one  edge,  bent  into  circular  form 
and  riveted  together.  Then  two  pieces  of  strap  iron  are  riveted 
to  the  upper  edge  of  this  cylinder  and  brought  together  into  a 
handle  above.  The  whole  implement  is  perhaps  four  and  a  half 
or  five  feet  long. 

Of  course,  this  dropper  does  not  do  the  work  as  well  as  it 
can  be  done  by  hand  pulling.  The  runners  are  not  cut  so  close 
and  some  leaves  from  the  mother  plants  are  sure  to  be  cut  away. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  expeditious  and  it  avoids  the 
danger  of  damaging  the  roots  of  the  mother  plants,  so  likely  to 
happen  when  the  runners  are  pulled. 

Shears  and  knives  are  sometimes  used,  and  the  latter  in  par- 
ticular have  much  to  commend  them.  The  principal  objection 
to  them  is  that  they  are  hard  on  the  hand  of  the  operator. 

Establishing  the  Hedge  Rov(^.— With  the  hedge  systems  the 
first  runners  to  form  arc  usually  spaced,  that  is,  placed  where  it 
is  desired  that  they  should  grow,  and  then  bedded  or  set  there. 
This  setting  is  accomplished  in  various  ways.  Sometimes  a 
light  trowel  is  used.  Often  it  is  done  by  hand ;  and  where  soil 
conditions  are  good,  as  they  should  be  at  this  time  in  the  season, 
this  is  likely  to  be  the  most  expeditious  way  to  do  the  work. 


112  OTHER  CARE  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

Some  growers  merely  place  a  clod  of  earth  or  a  bit  of  lieav}- 
gravel  on  the  ninner  cord  just  back  of  the  joint  and  the  runner 
will  then  root  itself.  The  first  runners  are  sometimes  removed 
in  these  systems  in  order  to  allow  the  mother  plants  to  become 
better  established  and  stronger,  but  this  is  of  rather  doubtful 
utility  since  it  entails  the  extra  labor  and  expense,  and  what  is 
gained  in  vigor  and  thrift  of  tho  mother  plant  is  lost  in  the 
delayed  starting  of  the  runner  plants. 

After  the  required  number  of  runners  have  been  set  (two  in 
the  single  hedge  and  four  in  the  double,  or  more  in  some  modifi- 
cations of  these  systems)  all  additional  runners  are  removed,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  hill  system  just  discussed. 

With  the  matted-row  system  usually  no  bedding  or  setting 
of  the  runners  is  practiced,  the  runners  being  allowed  to  take 
care  of  themselves.  In  very  dry  climates  or  seasons,  on  poor 
soils,  or  with  varieties  that  set  few  runners,  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  assist  the  ruimers  to  establish  themselves,  and  when 
it  is  the  work  is  done  as  discussed  under  the  hedge  systems.  But 
the  removal  of  superfluous  runners  from  the  matted  rows  often 
becomes  necessary  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured.  It  is 
largely  a  question  of  varieties,  some  sorts  naturally  setting  run- 
ners very  abundantly  while  others  set  few.  But  soil  conditions, 
seasons,  and  climates  also  influence  it. 

Distances  Betiueen  Plants. — To  secure  the  maximum  crops 
the  runners  as  they  set  ought  to  be  far  enough  apart  to  allow 
each  one  space  enough  to  develop  a  large  crown,  and  to  have 
plenty  of  air  and  sunshine  during  the  fruiting  season  to  mature 
the  berries  well.  Some  experiments  undertaken  by  II.  F.  Hall 
at  the  New  Hampshire  Station  gave  the  results  tabulated  on 
page  111. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  experiment  all  three  varieties 
gave  their  maximum  yields  at  six  inches  apart,  and  this  is  per- 
haps a  fair  average  result,  although,  like  many  other  matters,  it 
will  vary  greatly  with  conditions  and  varieties. 

Prevent  Plants  from  Becoming  Crowded. — As  a  rule,  with 
those  varieties  that  set  runners  freely,  the  plants  will  usually  be 
too  thick  under  the  matted  row  system  for  the  best  results,  and 


ROLLING  CUTTERS 

Distances  Between  Plants  Influence  Yields^ 


113' 


Distance 

Yield  in  quarts  per  acre 

Variety- 

No.  1 
Berries 

No.  2 
Berries 

Total 

Sample  

Sample 

Sample 

Brandywine. .  .  . 
Brandywine. ,  .  . 
Brandywine. .  .  . 
Glen  Marv .... 

Glen  Mary 

Glen  Marv.  .  .. 

Plants  3  inches  apart  each  way .  .  . 
Plants  G  inches  apart  each  way .  .  . 
Plants  8  inches  apart  each  way.  .  , 
Plants  3  inches  apart  each  way .  .  . 
Plants  6  inches  apart  each  way .  .  . 
Plants  8  inches  apart  each  way .  .  . 
Plants  3  inches  apart  each  way.  .  . 
Plants  G  inches  apart  each  way .  .  . 
Plants  8  inches  apart  each  way .  .  . 

3521 
8028 
6796 
1609 
4810 
4963 
3458 
6615 
5182 

2146 
1652 
1041 
1313 
943 
424 
2354 
1208 
1188 

5667 
9680 
7837 
2922 
5753 
5387 
5812 
7823 
6370 

some  steps  ought  to  be  taken  to  prevent  this.     Various  methods 
may  be  adopted,  but  the  following  are  some  that  are  often  used : 

The  runners,  as  they  form,  are  allowed  to  set  as  far  apart  as 
they  will.  This  means  narrowing  up  the  cultivated  spaces  be- 
tween the  rows  by  closing  up  the  cultivator  so  as  not  to  crowd 
the  runner  plants  back  onto  the  rows.  The  objection  to  this  is 
that  while  it  is  a  cheap  method  of  spacing  the  plants  widely,  it 
adds  at  once  to  the  area  which  must  be  cultivated  with  the  hoe 
and  thereby  adds  to  the  expense  of  culture  for  the  plantation, 
since  the  cost  of  hoeing,  if  the  bed  is  to  be  kept  in  the  best  con- 
dition, as  compared  to  cultivation,  is  always  the  big  item  in  the 
expense  account. 

Other  Methods  of  Removing  Runners. — All  the  other 
methods  adopted  attempt  to  gain  the  end  sought  by  destroying 
the  runners  after  they  have  formed.  And  the  following  are  the 
most  common : 

1.  Various  types  of  rolling  cutters  are  used  to  run  along 
next  to  the  rows  and  cut  off  the  runners  as  they  form.  Some- 
times these  cutters  are  separate  implements  run  by  hand,  but 
more  often  they  are  attached  to  the  cultivator  and  do  the  cutting 
at  the  same  time  that  the  soil  is  cultivated.  The  great  advan- 
tage in  their  use  is  that  they  do  the  work  cheaply.  The  objec- 
tions  are  that  a  good  many  leaves  are  cut  from  the  plants  which 

'Bulletin   137,  "Strawberries  for  New  Hampshire." 
8 


114  OTHER  CARE  OF  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

remain,  that  the  nniners  are  removed  in  rather  a  slip-shod  man- 
ner, and  that  runners  frequently  get  caught  in  the  frame  of  the 
cutter  and  arc  pulled  otf,  thus  damaging  the  mother  plants. 

2.  Hoeing  can  be  employed  as  discussed  under  the  hill  sys- 
tem and  is  good  as  far  as  it  goes,  but  it  is,  of  course,  more 
expensive  than  the  cutter. 

3.  Knives  are  sometimes  used,  and  if  the  removal  of  run- 
ners is  to  be  made  a  special  operation  they  are  perhaps  as  good 
as  anything,  but  the  method  is  bound  to  be  expensive. 

4.  Removing  Plants. — In  the  autumn  one  may  go  over  the 
bed  with  a  sharp-pointed  hoe,  such  as  is  shown  in  figure  14,  and 
cut  out  some  of  the  plants  that  have  set,  or  the  same  thing  may 
be  done  by  pulling  out  the  plants.  This  is  a  good  but 
expensive  method. 

5.  More  crude  but  cheaper  methods  of  autumn  thinning 
are  to  use  a  rake,  a  weeder,  or  even  a  harrow,  and  go  over  the 
bed  crosswise,  thus  pulling  out  and  dragging  loose  a  part  of  the 
plants,  particularly  the  younger  and  more  recently  set  plants 
along  the  edge  of  the  row.  On  large  beds  where  the  work  must 
bo  done  as  cheaply  as  possible  these  methods  are  often  used  and 
frequently  with  surprisingly  good  results.  They  are  on  the 
same  order  as  the  use  of  a  weeder  on  various  crops  while  they 
are  young.  One  is  apt  to  feel  while  the  operation  is  in  prog- 
ress that  a  great  deal  of  damage  is  being  done  to  his  plants,  but 
after  the  thing  is  done  and  the  remaining  plants  get  back  into 
shape  they  are  apparently  as  good  as  ever  and  the  row  has  been 
thinned  out  considerably. 

Removal  of  Blossoms. — Another  operation  which  ought  al- 
ways to  be  carefully  attended  to  is  the  removal  of  all  blossoms 
from  the  newly  set  plants.  There  is  usually  but  one  cluster  of 
blossoms  to  each  plant  with  the  ordinary  strawberry  in  our 
northern  sections,  but  the  production  of  the  blossoms  and  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit  is  a  severe  strain  on  the  young  plant,  and  is 
an  absolute  waste  of  strength  since  the  berries  are  not  abundant 
enough  to  warrant  one  in  picking  them.  The  blossom  clusters 
may  be  nipped  oif  with  the  thumb  and  finger,  or  a  pair  of  shears 
may  be  used.     The  latter  method  is  usually  safer  and  nearly  or 


QUESTIONS  115 

quite  as  expeditious.  So  far  as  its  effect  on  the  plant  is  con- 
cerned, this  work  is  best  done  before  the  blossoms  open ;  and  it 
certainly  ought  to  be  done  before  more  than  the  first  blossom 
has  opened,  otherwise  the  plant  is  put  to  all  the  trouble  and  ex- 
pense of  making  the  blossom  and  all  we  relieve  it  from  is  the 
ripening  of  the  fiiiit. 

With  the  everbearing  varieties,  or  M'ith  the  ordinary  straw- 
berries in  southern  sections,  where  the  plants  are  expected  to 
bear  fruit  the  season  they  are  set  out,  this  removal  of  blossoms 
may  be  carried  on  only  so  long  as  is  necessary  to  allow  the 
mother  plants  to  become  well  established,  or  it  may  be  continued 
longer  in  order  to  control  the  season  at  which  the  fniit  shall 
be  borne. 

Irrigation. — Another  operation  which  ought  at  least  to  be 
mentioned  here  is  irrigation.  In  some  sections  this  is,  of  course, 
a  regular  feature  of  the  season's  work.  It  is  a  question  whether 
it  ought  not  to  be  more  often  used  in  sections  where  the  rainfall 
is  usually  considered  sufficient  (Fig.  54).  The  average  season 
in  such  sections  will  see  one  or  two  periods  (more  particularly 
just  before  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen  and  towards  the  end  of  the 
picking  season)  when  a  good  irrigating  will  increase  the 
crop  tremendously. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  a  strawberry  runner. 

2.  What  is  the  object  in  removing  the  runners? 

3.  In  what  ways  are  tlie  runners  removed? 

4.  How  are  the  runners  managed  in  the  hill  system? 

5.  How  in  the  hedge  systems? 

6.  How  are  they  managed  in  the  matted  row  system? 

7.  Do  strawberry  plants  become  too  crowded  in  the  row?     If  so  what  are 

the  bad  effects  on  the  crop? 

8.  Under  what  conditions  would  you   remove   the    blossoms   from   straw- 

berry plants?     Why? 


CHAPTER  XIII 
DISEASES,   INSECTS,  AND   SPRAYING   OF   STRAWBERRIES 

The  strawberry  is  singularly  free  from  really  serious  and 
generally  distributed  diseases  and  insects.  Of  course,  there  are 
troubles  enough,  and  some  pests,  as  the  white  grub  and  the  leaf 
spot,  are  very  common  and  often  do  comparatively  great  dam- 
age. But  there  is  nothing  to  compare  either  in  destructiveness 
or  wide  distribution  with  the  codling  moth  of  the  apple,  for 
example,  or  the  brown  rot  of  the  peach  and  plum,  or  the  San 
Jose  scale  which  attacks  almost  all  fruits. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  a  work  of  this  kind  to  give  any- 
thing like  a  complete  list  of  strawberry  pests,  but  the  following 
are  some  of  the  more  common  and  destnictive  of  them : 

White  Grub. — Among  insects  the  white  grub  stands  pre- 
eminent. There  are  several  closely  allied  species  of  them  which 
are  known  technically  as  species  of  Lachnosterna,  but  prac- 
tically they  are  so  nearly  alike  as  to  be  indistinguishable  in  the 
larval  stage  even  to  experts,  and  the  life  histories  and  general 
characteristics  of  them  are  almost  identical.  The  adult  insect 
is  the  big,  brown,  buzzing  May  beetle  or  "  June  bug,"  which  is 
80  attracted  by  lights  and  with  which  we  are  all  familiar. 

Life  History  and  Daynage. — The  female  deposits  her  eggs 
in  the  soil,  usually  about  three  inches  below  the  surface,  and 
prefers  grass  land  for  the  purpose,  and  the  older  the  sod  the 
better  she  likes  it.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days,  and  the  young 
feed  on  the  roots  of  the  plants  growing  in  the  soil  and  gradually 
develop  into  the  big,  dirty,  yellowish-white  grubs  with  a  brown 
head  and  a  blackish  tip  to  the  abdomen  with  which  farmers 
and  gardeners  are  all  too  familiar  (Fig.  55).  With  the  ap- 
proach of  winter  they  burrow  more  deeply  into  the  soil  and 
hibernate  there,  returning  the  following  season  to  feed  again  on 
the  roots.  Tt  requires  one  or  more  years  in  which  to  complete 
the  lif(>  cycle,  but  this  latter  part  of  their  life  liistory  <l()(>s  not 
especially  interest  us.  It  is  during  the  second  season  that  they 
116 


PREVENTION  AND  REMEDY 


117 


damage  strawberry  beds  most  seriously.  Where  infested  land 
has  been  plowed  up  and  set  to  strawberries  in  the  spring,  the 
white  grubs,  on  coming  up  from  the  subsoil  where  they  have 
passed  the  winter,  find  only  a  comparatively  few  strawberry 
roots  to  feed  upon  in  place  of  the  abundance  of  grass  roots  the 
year  previous.  They  therefore  concentrate  on  the  strawberry 
plants  with  very  serious  results. 


Fig.  s 


.n  at  right;  its  pupa  at  left;  adult  beetle  abc 
Kelly  and  Washburn.) 


White  gi'ubs  are  also  likely  to  be  troublesome  where  land  is 
kept  too  long  in  strawberries.  In  blocks  from  which  three,  four, 
or  five  crops  are  taken  they  are  very  likely  to  damage  the  bed 
during  the  later  years. 

Prevention  and  Remedy. — As  with  a  great  many  other 
things,  the  most  satisfactory  methods  of  avoiding  trouble  with 
them  are  preventive.  Grass  land  ought  always  to  be  avoided  if 
possible  in  selecting  a  block  to  put  into  strawberries.  Occasion- 
ally one  may  escape  trouble,  but  the  danger  is  too  great  to  war- 
rant one  in  taking  the  risk  if  any  other  land  is  available.  If  it 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  use  sod  land,  then  plow  it  very  deeply 
the  autumn  previous  in  the  hope  that  the  hibernating  gTubs 


118     DISEASES,  INSECTS,  AND  SPRAYING  OF  STRAWBERRIES 

may  be  turned  up  by  the  plow  where  the  winter  weather  will 
destroy  them. 

But  wherever  possible  one  cultivated  crop  ought  to  intervene 
between  the  grass  crop  and  the  strawberries.  Clover  is  not 
much  affected  by  the  grubs,  and  a  clover  sod  may  fairly  safely 
be  plowed  down  for  strawberries. 

To  avoid  trouble  after  the  bed  has  been  established  do  not 
keep  it  do\\ai  to  berries  too  long.  A  short  rotation  with  not  over 
two  crops  of  berries  and  with  a  cultivated  crop  the  year  previous 
w411  usually  keep  them  entirely  under  control. 

In  case  the  plants  are  attacked  the  only  thing  that  can  be 
done  is  to  dig  down  by  the  side  of  the  plant,  capture  the  grub 
and  kill  him.  This  is,  of  course,  entirely  practicable  for  the 
home  plot,  but  not  for  a  commercial  plantation  of  any  size. 

Leaf  Roller. — In  some  sections  this  insect  is  very  destructive 
and  it  is  very  generally  distributed  through  the  strawberry  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Injury  and  Life  Habits. — The  adult  is  a  small  reddish-brown 
moth,  and  the  larva  (which  is,  of  course,  the  stage  during  which 
the  damage  to  the  strawberry  bed  is  done)  is  a  small  yellowish  or 
greenish-brown  caterpillar.  It  feeds  for  a  very  short  time  in  the 
open  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves  and  then  begins  to  draw 
them  together  with  threads  and  fasten  them  into  a  little  case, 
inside  of  which  it  continues  to  feed  until  it  reaches  the  adult 
stage.  There  are  from  two  to  four  broods  in  a  season  according 
to  locality,  the  larger  number  being  in  the  South.  The  insect 
winters  over  in  both  the  larval  and  pupal  stages  under  any  con- 
venient trash  about  the  bed,  those  passing  the  winter  as  larvae 
returning  to  the  leaves  in  the  spring  to  feed  for  a  time  before 
changing  to  pupae. 

JRemedies. — There  are  two  lines  of  attack  open.  In  the  first 
place,  the  bed  may  be  sprayed  with  arsenate  of  lead.  Use  three 
pounds  of  paste  or  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  powder  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water.  This  is  to  kill  the  caterpillars  when  they 
begin  feeding.  This  method  is,  of  course,  eftective  only  during 
the  first  few  days  of  the  feeding  of  any  particular  insect  and 
before  it  has  folded  up  the  leaf.     After  the  leaf  is  folded  no 


THE  STRAWBERRY  WEEVIL  119 

amount  of  spraying  will  injure  it.  The  difficulty  in  employing 
this  line  of  attack  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  different  broods 
are  not  distinct  but  overlap  each  other,  so  that  there  are  new 
larvae  appearing  constantly.  Since  there  are  new  leaves  ap- 
pearing all  the  time,  the  sprayings  must  be  frequent  in  order  to 
keep  all  the  leaves  protected  and  thus  kill  all  the  insects.  To  be 
entirely  effective  the  spraying  ought  to  be  repeated  every  week 
or  ten  days.  On  the  other  hand,  reasonably  good  and  some- 
times very  good  results  are  secured  by  spraying  just  as  the  first 
caterpillars  appear  in  the  spring. 

The  other  line  of  attack  is  in  destroying  the  old  leaves  on 
the  bed  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  crop  is  harvested.  This 
means  that  if  the  bed  is  to  be  abandoned  it  should  be  plowed 
under  just  as  quickly  as  possible ;  while,  if  it  is  to  be  renovated 
for  another  crop,  the  leaves  ought  to  be  mowed  and  the  bed 
burned  oif,  if  this  can  possibly  be  done.  In  either  case  if  the 
w^ork  is  thorough  the  insects  of  all  stages  are  destroyed. 

Short  rotations  also  help,  with  only  one  or  two  crops  taken 
from  the  bed. 

The  Strav^^berry  Weevil. — This  is  another  very  serious  pest 
in  some  localities  and  during  some  seasons.  Some  good  authori- 
ties estimate  the  loss  from  its  attacks  at  half  the  crop  during 
some  seasons.  It  is  one  of  the  snout  beetles,  varying  in  color 
from  black  to  reddish-brown  and  is  not  over  a  tenth  of  an  inch 
in  length.  It  passes  the  winter  in  the  adult  or  beetle  stage, 
hiding  under  any  convenient  trash,  but  seeming  to  prefer  wood- 
lands and  hedge-rows  in  the  vicinity  of  the  strawberry  bed. 

In  the  spring  the  beetles  return  to  the  bed  just  before  blos- 
soming time  and' feed  on  the  developing  pollen.  In  a  short  time 
the  female  deposits  her  eggs  inside  the  blossom  buds  and  then 
girdles  the  stem  below,  so  that  the  bud  breaks  off,  thus  giving 
the  conditions  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  larvae. 
Strangely  enough,  the  female  seems  to  know  what  buds  contain 
pollen  and  what  do  not,  so  that  only  those  varieties  which  have 
perfect  or  staminate  blossoms  are  attacked  to  any  extent. 

Remedies. — This  brief  outline  of  the  insects'  habits  will 
suggest  the  lines  along  which  one  ought  to  proceed  in  attacking 


120      DISEASES,  INSECTS,   AND  SPRAYING  OF  STRAWBERRIES 

them.  To  begin  with,  evei'}i;hiiig  practicable  should  be  done  to 
eradicate  possible  winter  quarters  for  them.  If  avoidable  the  bed 
should  not  be  placed  in  the  neighborhood  of  woodlands  or  hedge- 
rows, but  if  this  cannot  be  avoided  then  all  trash  about  these 
places  should  be  cleaned  up  and  bunied. 

The  second  line  of  attack  consists  in  planting  as  freely  as 
possible  of  the  pistillate  varieties  which  are  practically  immune 
and  only  setting  wdiat  staminate  varieties  are  needed  for  pollen- 
ization,  say,  every  fifth  row.  For  these  staminate  rows  the  most 
profuse  blossoming  varieties  should  be  selected,  so  that  after  the 
insect  has  taken  its  toll  there  will  still  be  blossoms  enough  left 
to  furnish  pollen  for  the  crop. 

Root  Louse. — Like  most  plants  the  strawberry  has  its  aphis 
which  is  sometimes  very  destructive,  working  on  the  roots  and 
causing  the  plants  to  become  sickly  and  eventually  to  die. 

The  life  history  is,  very  briefly,  as  follows :  The  eggs,  which 
are  small,  black  and  shining,  are  laid  in  the  autunrti  on  the 
leaves  of  the  strawberry  plants.  They  hatch  in  the  early  spring, 
producing  wingless  females  which  are  can-ied  by  ants  do^vn  to 
the  roots  of  the  plants  and  even  from  plants  which  have  been 
killed  to  fresh  plants.  They  multiply  very  raj^idly,  the  young 
being  brought  forth  alive  instead  of  passing  through  the  egg 
stage,  and  requiring  only  about  two  weeks  to  reach  maturity, 
when  they  in  turn  begin  to  bring  forth  young.  In  the  late 
autumn  winged  males  and  females  are  produced  and  the  eggs 
laid  for  another  generation. 

Prevention. — All  of  the  measures  to  be  used  against  this 
pest  are  preventive,  there  being  no  practical  remedial  measures 
that  can  be  employed.     The  preventive  measvires  are  as  follows : 

Set  only  clean  plants  in  clean  soil,  that  is,  soil  which  is  not 
already  infested  with  this  aphis.  To  be  sure  of  clean  plants 
secure  them  from  a  bed  that  is  known  to  be  clean. 

This  is  much  better  than  using  plants  which  are  infested 
and  attempting  to  clean  them  of  aphides  before  planting.  But 
if  the  latter  method  is  unavoidable  the  plants  may  be  cleaned 
with  reasonable  certainty  by  dipping  them  in  a  weak  solution 
of  nicotine  sulfate  (tobacco  extract),  one  part  to  one  thousand 


FUNGOUS  DISEASES  121 

parts  of  water.  They  must,  of  course,  be  thoroughly  soaked  so 
that  every  insect  will  be  wet.  To  make  sure  of  this  the  plants 
ought  to  be  left  in  the  solution  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  An- 
other method  which  is  recommended  but  which  is  more  diiScult 
to  use  and  less  certain  to  be  satisfactory  is  to  fumigate  the  plants 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  using  the  cyanide  at  the  rate  of  one 
ounce  per  hundred  cubic  feet  of  space  and  subjecting  the  plants 
to  this  for  ten  minutes. 

Other  Insect  Enemies. — There  are  a  number  of  other  insects 
which  are  likely  to  be  more  or  less  troublesome,  but  they  are 
hardly  of  sufficiently  general  importance  to  warrant  discussing 
them  in  a  work  of  this  kind. 

Nematodes  are  really  parasitic  worais  which  attack  the  roots 
and  cause  knots  or  swellings  called  root  galls.  They  check  the 
growth  of  the  plants  and  are  very  destnictive  in  some  sections. 
This  trouble  may  be  considered  the  most  serious  enemy  of  the 
strawberry  in  eastern  Texas,  parts  of  Florida,  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

The  pest  has  numerous  Lost  plants  so  that  it  is  difiicult  to 
eradicate  by  means  of  rotation  of  crops.  Peach  and  raspberry 
are  often  affected  and  should  not  be  grown  with  strawberries  if 
nematodes  are  troublesome  (Fig.  56).  This  is  possible,  how- 
ever, if  none  of  the  host  plants  are  gro\vn.  on  the  land  for  two  or 
more  years.  Co%vpeas  of  the  Iron  variety  may  be  grown  during 
this  period. 

Treating  the  soil  with  a  solution  of  forty  per  cent,  formalde- 
hyde, one  pound  in  fifteen  gallons  of  water,  is  very  effective  when 
applied  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  to  a  square  yard.  This  method 
is  practical  only  for  home  garden  patches. 

Heavy  applications  of  caustic  lime  have  been  found  to  re- 
duce the  trouble  materially. 

FUNGOUS  DISEASES 

The  one  disease  which  stands  preeminently  among  fungous 
troubles  of  the  strawberry  is  the  leaf  spot,  which  rejoices  in  the 
scientific  name  of  Sphaerella  fragarise,  or,  according  to  some 


122     DISEASES,   INSECTS,  AND  SPRAYING  OF  STRAWBERRIES 

authorities,  Micosplaaerella  fragerise.     It  is  found  in  practically 
every  section  where  strawberries  are  grown. 

Attacks  of  Leaf  Spot. — It  appears  as  small  purplish  spots 
which  sometimes  have  reddish  borders.  As  the  spot  gets  older 
the  center  turns  to  a  grayish  color  as  the  tissues  are  killed.  In 
bad  cases  the  spots  run  together,  forming  large,  irregular  patches 
which  sometimes  cover  a  large  part  of  the  leaf.  The  spots  will 
also  be  found  attacking  the  stems  of  both  leaves  and  fruit,  being 
plentifully  sprinkled  along  them.     Here  they  are  really  more 


Crop  grown  in  a  young  orchard. 

serious  than  on  the  leaves,  since  a  single  spot,  if  it  extends  all 
the  way  around  the  stem  and  proves  to  be  a  vigorous  infection, 
may  cut  off  the  movement  of  sap  through  the  stem  and  thus 
cause  the  death  of  the  entire  leaf  or  fruit  cluster,  and  in  any 
event  seriously  weaken  it. 

To  whatever  extent  the  leaves  are  attacked  their  function  of 
producing  elaborated  food  is  thereby  interfered  with,  while 
attacks  on  the  stems  of  the  clusters  hinder  the  development  and 
ripening  of  the  berries,  causing  them  to  be  small  and  inferior. 
In  bad  attacks  of  this  disease  many  of  the  leaves  turn  brown  so 
that  the  bed  looks  as  though  it  had  been  swept  by  a  fire. 

A  heavy,  wet  soil  favors  the  disease,  as  do  also  moisture  and 
heat  of  the  air.    A  period  of  hot,  muggy  weather  with  frequent 


POWDERY  MILDEW  123 

showers,  to  cause  a  wide  infection  of  the  leaves,  followed  by  a 
dry  spell  to  reduce  the  vigor  of  the  plants,  will  often  canse  a  very 
serions  loss,  sometimes  ruining  a  bed  altogether. 

The  disease  may  he  controlled  by  selecting  soil  suitable  to 
the  plants,  by  frequent  changes  of  the  bed,  by  destroying  old 
leaves,  and,  in  bad  cases,  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 
One  spraying  should  be  given  as  soon  as  the  plants  start  in  the 
spring,  another  just  before  blossoming,  and  a  third  just  after 
blossoming.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  give  all  three  of  these, 
one  application  before  blossoming  being  usually  sufficient.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  some  cases  the  disease  cannot  be  controlled 
entirely  even  though  all  three  of  these  applications  are  given. 

Another  gi-eat  help  in  keeping  this  disease  in  check  is  to 
select  those  varieties  which  are  most  resistant  to  it.  There  is 
apparently  a  wide  difference  in  the  behavior  of  the  same  variety 
in  different  localities.  Glen  Mary  and  Marshall  are  very  sus- 
ceptible to  the  disease  and  are,  therefore,  seldom  grown  in 
southern  states  because  of  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  there. 
In  general,  a  variety  which  is  immune  in  one  section  will  prob- 
ably be  so  in  another  section.  Dunlap,  Aroma,  Superb,  Chesa- 
peake, and  Progressive  have  a  high  degree  of  resistance. 

Good  atmospheric  drainage  is  also  very  helpful  in  preventing 
serious  trouble  from  this  disease. 

Strawberry  Botrytis  Disease. — This  fungus  is  sometimes 
the  cause  of  a  serious  disease  of  the  strawberry,  attacking  the 
stem,  calyx,  and  sometimes  the  green  fruit.  It  is  more  serious 
in  rainy  seasons,  and  where  such  seasons  are  prevalent  during 
the  fruiting  time  we  should  plant  those  varieties  which  seem 
most  resistant  to  the  trouble.  Such  varieties  are  Aroma,  Chesa- 
peake, Sample  and  Superb. 

Powdery  Mildew. — Another  disease  which  is  sometimes 
troublesome,  though  not  usually  so,  is  the  powdery  mildew. 
This  causes  the  leaves  to  curl  up  and  turn  whitish  from  the 
mycelium  of  the  disease  on  the  surface.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux 
as  given  for  the  spot  will  entirely  control  this  trouble.  The  Belt 
variety  is  particularly  susceptible  to  attacks  of  mildew. 

Summary. — It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  brief  discus- 


124     DISEASES,  INSECTS,  AND  SPRAYING  OF  STRAWBERRIES 

sion  of  strawberry  pests  that  most  of  them,  both  insect  and 
fungus,  can  be  prevented  by  the  proper  handling  of  tlie  bed. 
It  often  happens  that  no  remedial  measures  are  necessary.  In 
fact,  probably  nine  growers  out  of  ten  do  not  attempt  any  spray- 
ing. The  campaign  for  the  control  of  these  pests  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows : 

1.  Short  cropping  of  the  bed.  The  more  serious  the  trouble 
from  insects  and  fungous  diseases  the  fewer  crops  that  should 
be  hai-\'ested  from  the  bed. 

2.  Plowing  under  abandoned  beds  just  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  last  crop  is  harvested. 

3.  Mowing  over  and  burning  off  old  beds,  which  are  to  be 
carried  over  for  another  crop,  just  as  quickly  as  possible  after 
each  crop  is  harvested. 

4.  Spraying'  with  Bordeaux  mixture  one  or  more  times  ac- 
cording to  the  danger  of  severe  attacks. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe   the   white   grub   and    its   work.      Have   you    ever    seen   them 

in  the  soil? 

2.  What  conditions  favor  white  grubs? 

3.  Discuss  the  leaf-roller. 

4.  Describe  the  strawberry  weevil  and  its  work. 

5.  Discuss  the  root-louse.     Did  you  ever  see  the  work  of  this  insect  or 

of  any  other  type  of  root-louse  ? 

6.  Describe  the  strawberry  leaf-sipot.     Have  you  ever  seen  this  disease  on 

strawberry  leaves? 

7.  Describe  the  mildew  of  strawberries. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
MULCHING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

It  is  usually  customary  to  apply  some  sort  of  mulch  to  the 
strawberry  bed.  In  the  northern  sections  this  is  done  in  the  late 
autumn  or  early  winter,  and  in  the  South  shortly  before  fruiting. 

Purposes  of  Mulching. — The  principal  functions  which  this 
mulch  serves  are  the  following: 

1.  Prevents  Heaving. — It  prevents  the  alternate  freezing  and 
thawing  of  the  soil  and  the  consequent  damage  to  the  strawberry 
plants.  Strawberries  are  shallow-rooted  plants,  with  rather 
delicate,  fibrous  roots ;  and  when  the  soil  is  allowed  to  freeze  and 
thaw  frequently,  many  of  these  roots  will  be  broken  and  others 
more  or  less  damaged  by  the  so-called  "  heaving  "  of  the  soil. 
This  can  be  largely  prevented  by  a  mulch  which  causes  the 
soil  to  freeze  and  thaw  more  gi-adually.  This  heaving  takes 
place  more  or  less  whenever  the  soil  freezes  and  thaws,  but  is 
usually  much  more  serious  in  the  spring.  In  sections,  however, 
where  winter  comes  on  gradually  and  the  soil  freezes  slightly 
and  thaws  again  a  great  many  times  in  the  autumn,  the  plants 
are  likely  to  be  damaged  thereby  and  early  mulching  is  advisable. 

2.  Damage  by  Frost  Prevented. — It  keeps  the  plants  dor- 
mant in  the  spring.  The  principal  benefit  from  this  is  that  it 
retards  the  time  of  blossoming  and  so  will  often  enable  them 
to  escape  damage  from  late  frosts  which  are  always  a  serious 
menace  to  the  strawberry  crop.  The  blossoms  are,  of  course, 
very  tender ;  and  lying,  as  they  do,  close  to  the  ground,  they  are 
in  a  position  to  catch  the  frost  if  there  is  any.  Frequently  there 
will  be  just  enough  frost  to  damage  the  little  central  cone  of 
pistils  while  the  rest  of  the  blossom  escapes  injury.  In  such  a 
case  the  center  of  the  blossom  turns  black  while  the  other  parts 
may  remain  as  fresh  as  ever. 

This  rctardinf/  of  the  (jrowth  of  the  plants  by  means  of  the 
mulch  must  be  done  with  caution,  as  in  case  they  are  allowed  to 

125 


126  MULCHING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

grow  too  much  under  the  mulch  they  become  so  blanched  and 
tender  that  they  are  damaged  by  the  sun  when  the  mulch  is 
finally  removed.  It  is  well  to  examine  them  from  day  to  day 
so  as  to  keep  track  of  just  how  they  are  coming  along  and  in  this 
w^ay  avoid  overdoing  it. 

Delay  Makes  Later  Fruit. — Another  point  which  should  be 
borne  in  mind  in  considering  this  question  of  retarding  the 
period  of  bloom  is  the  fact  that  one  also  retards  the  period  of 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  This  latter  may  or  may  not  be  of 
advantage.  Wlien  early  berries  bring  the  highest  prices,  as  is 
often  the  case,  it  would  certainly  be  desirable  not  to  hold  back  the 
bed  any  longer  than  was  absolutely  necessary.  And  on  the  other 
hand,  in  those  sections  which  are  far  enough  north  so  that  their 
crop  comes  on  the  market  very  late,  late  enough  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  upward  turn  in  prices  which  is  sure  to  come  at  the 
end  of  the  season,  it  is  desirable  to  retard  the  date  of  ripening 
just  as  much  as  possible.  In  the  home  plantation  the  late  ripen- 
ing sorts  should  always  be  left  covered  just  as  long  as  possible, 
while  the  mulch  may  be  removed  earlier  from  early  ripening 
sorts.  Even  on  commercial  beds,  if  the  early  and  late  varieties 
are  separated  enough  so  that  it  can  be  done,  this  variation  in  the 
removal  of  the  mulch  might  well  be  practiced. 

3.  Saves  Moisture. — The  mulch  serves  to  retain  moisture  in 
the  soil.  This  function  is  performed  during  the  second  and  fol- 
lowing springs,  from  the  time  the  plants  start  to  gi'ow  until  the 
crop  is  harvested,  as  during  this  season  there  is,  of  course,  usu- 
ally no  cultivation.  The  importance  of  this  function  can  hardly 
be  overemphasized  in  most  sections,  as  it  is  very  rare  that  a 
season  passes  without  the  plantation  suffering  from  lack  of 
moisture.  This  mulch  acts,  of  course,  just  as  the  dust  mulch 
of  a  cultivated  block  does,  by  holding  the  moisture  under  the 
mulch  where  it  cannot  be  evaporated  by  the  sun  and  wind. 

4.  Weed  Control. — The  mulch  keeps  down  the  weeds  dur- 
ing this  growing  period  just  mentioned.  This  is  another  impor- 
tant function.  Even  though  the  bed  has  been  kept  free  from 
weeds  from  the  time  it  was  set,  and  even  though  the  previous 
treatment  of  the  soil  has  been  such  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimima 


ONE  DANGER  127 

the  weed-seed  present  in  it,  there  are  always  plenty  of  them 
left,  and  the  mulch  has  to  be  relied  upon  largely  to  prevent  their 
competing  seriously  with  the  strawberry  plants. 

5.  It  Keeps  the  Berries  Clean. — Without  a  good  mulch  the 
dirt  is  sure  to  be  spattered  up  on  to  the  berries  during  rains  so 
that  their  value  is  very  decidedly  reduced.  The  fruit  from  un- 
mulched  beds  is  less  attractive  on  account  of  this  dirt  on  it,  and 
even  when  it  has  been  thoroughly  washed  there  is  frequently 
more  or  less  grit  left  on  it.  Store-keepers  and  market  men  who 
handle  strawberries  are  almost  certain  to  inquire,  when  they  are 
approached  to  see  if  they  will  buy  the  crop  from  a  certain  bed, 
whether  the  bed  was  mulched  or  not.  If  it  was  not,  they  are 
never  as  anxious  to  buy  and  will  usually  not  pay  as  much  for 
the  output,  frequently  by  several  cents  per  quart. 

6.  Picking  Conditions  Improved. — It  improves  the  condi- 
tions of  the  bed  at  picking  time,  enabling  the  pickers  to  get 
about  more  comfortably,  particularly  when  heavy  rains  come 
during  the  picking  season.  It  also  prevents  the  soil  from  being 
trodden  down  quite  so  firmly  by  the  pickers  and  therefore  makes 
it  possible  to  renovate  the  bed  much  more  easily  and  satisfac- 
torily than  if  there  is  no  mulch. 

7.  It  Prevents  the  Soil  from  Baking. — This  is  especially  im- 
portant during  the  picking  season  when  the  trampling  back  and 
forth  of  the  pickers  day  after  day  firms  the  soil  dowm  seriously 
at  best.  The  mulch  helps  to  reduce  this  solidifying  of  the  soil 
which  without  it  would  materially  reduce  the  crop  and  leave  the 
soil  in  bad  condition  for  future  crops. 

8.  The  mulch  may  improve  the  soil  by  adding  a  certain 
amount  of  plant  food  and  humus.  This  is  particularly  true 
where  strawy  manure  is  used,  but  any  mulch  material  breaks  up 
more  or  less  and  some  of  it  is  worked  into  the  soil,  thereby 
improving  it. 

One  Danger. — On  the  other  hand,  the  one  damage  to  the 
plantation  which  is  likely  to  result  from  the  use  of  mulch  is  that 
it  increases  the  danger  from  frosts  in  the  spring.  Everyone  is 
familiar  with  the  fact  that  when  a  light  frost  occurs  it  will  be 
found  on  straw  or  hay  more  surely  than  anywhere  else.     This 


128  MULCHING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

is  no  doubt  due  to  the  straw  preventing  the  heat  of  the  soil  from 
being  given  olt'  to  the  air  above  it.  While  the  margin  is  a 
narrow  one,  it  might  easily  cause  a  frost  to  occur  on  the  mulched 
bed  while  it  would  not  on  the  unmulched  one. 

MATERIALS   FOR   THE   MULCH 

It  is  often  difficult  to  get  materials  that  are  entirely  satisfac- 
tory for  mulching.  This,  of  course,  is  particularly  true  where 
large  beds  are  grown,  but  even  on  relatively  small  beds  the 
problem  of  securing  a  material  for  mulching  that  is  satisfactory 
in  all  respects  is  often  a  difficult  one  to  solve.  Generally  it  ends 
in  a  compromise.  Some  of  the  important  characteristics  of  a 
good  material  for  a  mulch  on  strawberry  beds  are : 

1.  That  it  be  Cheap. — This  needs  no  discussion,  but  is  fre- 
quently the  most  difficult  requirement  to  fulfill. 

2.  No  Weed  Seeds. — It  shall  contain  no  seeds  of  weeds 
that  would  germinate  and  grow  in  the  bed.  Some  plants  would 
never  become  troublesome  in  a  strawberry  bed  and  their  pres- 
ence in  a  mulch  would  therefore  not  be  objectionable,  while  other 
plants,  like  the  various  types  of  pig-weed,  chickweed  and  others, 
are  always  to  be  guarded  against. 

3.  Not  Easily  Blown. — It  shall  not  be  too  easily  moved  by 
winds.  There  is  almost  always  more  or  less  trouble  from  the 
mulch  being  blown  off  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  by 
heavy  winds.  On  small  patches  this  can  be  prevented  by  plac- 
ing bouglis  on  top  of  the  mulch,  but  on  larger  plantations  this 
is,  of  course,  out  of  the  question,  or  at  least  very  expensive, 
and  the  character  of  the  material  must  be  relied  upon  to 
keep  it  in  place. 

4.  Not  Smother  Plants. — The  material  must  not  be  compact 
enough  so  that  it  is  likely  to  flatten  dovni  on  the  ground  and 
smother  out  the  strawberry  plants.  This  is  the  objection  to  the 
use  of  leaves  from  such  deciduous  trees  as  the  maple. 

5.  Compact. — On  the  other  hand,  the  material  must  be  suffi- 
ciently compact  to  conserve  moisture  and  keep  down  the  weeds. 

6.  Easily  Applied. — Lastly,  the  material  must  bo  such  as 


MOST  SUITABLE  MATERIALS  129 

will  spread  evenly  and  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  ease  over 
the  bed. 

Most  Suitable  Materials. — Now,  like  a  great  many  other 
ideals,  the  ideal  material  for  mulching  a  strawberry  bed  does 
not  exist,  but  some  materials  approach  it  more  or  less  closely. 
The  following  are  most  often  used : 

1.  Marsh  hay,  swale  grass  and  other  similar  materials. 
These  are  generally  very  satisfactory  where  they  can  be  had,  as 
they  do  not  usually  contain  weeds  which  will  grow  on  the  type 
of  soil  where  strawberries  grow,  and  they  have  most  of  the  other 
characteristics  of  a  good  mulch.  The  difficulty  is  that  they  can- 
not usually  be  had  in  sufficiently  large  quantities  and  in  many 
sections  not  at  all.  Occasionally  they  may  contain  troublesome 
weeds,  in  which  case  they  must  be  cut  early  before  the  seed 
matures  enough  to  germinate. 

2.  Straw  (oats,  wheat,  barley,  or  rye).  This  is  moTO  com- 
monly used  than  any  other  material,  and  where  it  is  free  from 
weed  seed  comes  as  near  the  ideal  as  we  can  get.  Unfortunately, 
as  every  farmer  knows,  grain  fields  are  pretty  apt  to  have  weeds 
in  them,  and  we  apply  their  seeds  along  with  our  mulch  often 
with  disastrous  results  the  following  spring.  But  straw  fulfills 
as  many  of  the  requirements  of  a  mulch  as  perhaps  any  other 
material  we  have  and  is  more  commonly  used  than  any  other. 

3.  Strawy  Manure. — This  makes  an  excellent  mulch  and  at 
the  same  time  adds  a  good  amount  of  excellent  plant  food.  The 
two  objections  to  it  are  that  it  is  usually  available  in  only 
limited  quantities  and  that  it  is  likely  to  carry  more  or  less 
weed  seed. 

4.  Corn  Fodder. — This  is  too  coarse  to  be  really  satisfactory 
in  many  ways,  but  this  very  fact  makes  it  particularly  good 
where  severe  winds  have  to  be  contended  against.  It  carries  no 
weed  seed,  and  if  enough  of  it  is  used  it  is  reasonably  good 
mulch  material.  It  is  generally  rather  expensive  and  is  not 
used  very  commonly  except  on  rather  small  blocks. 

5.  Pine  Needles. — These  make  an  excellent  material,  being 
almost  ideal  except  that  they  are  rather  compact.  The  objection 
to  their  use  comes  from  the  fact  that  they  can  frequently  be  had 

9 


130  MULCHING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 

in  only  limited  quantities,  and  that  the  pine  forest  is  damaged 
by  their  removal.  Yet  in  sections  where  pines  are  abundant 
they  are  often  used.  Leaves  of  other  trees  may  form  at  least  a 
part  of  the  mulch,  though  not  too  large  a  part,  as  they  are  likely 
to  mat  down  and  smother  the  plants.  Stalks  or  other  material 
may  be  needed  to  hold  the  leaves  from  blowing. 

6.  Growing  a  Mulch  on  ilie  Bed. — This  is  a  fairly  com- 
mon practice,  the  plan  being  to  sow  oats,  barley,  or  some  other 
crop  in  late  summer  or  early  autumn  in  time  for  it  to  make  a 
considerable  growth  before  frost  kills  it.  The  objection  to  the 
practice  is  that  it  necessitates  stopping  cultivation  relatively 
early,  thereby  reducing  the  supply  of  moisture  and  plant  food, 
and  introducing  a  plant  which  will  compete  with  the  strawberry 
for  this  lessened  supply.  Moreover,  this  mulch  is  gro%vn  only 
between  the  rows,  and  it  is  still  necessary  to  apply  more  or  less 
on  top  of  the  rows.  Of  course,  the  advantage  of  the  practice  is 
that  one  utilizes  the  strawberry  bed  for  the  growing  of  the  mulch. 

Planning  for  the  Mulch. — JMany  growers  make  a  practice  of 
growing  some  crop  on  other  land  in  the  late  summer  especially 
for  use  as  a  nmlch.  The  larger  growing  plants  are  generally 
used,  such  as  corn  or  millet  or  sorghum,  and  are  sown  thick 
enough  so  that  they  do  not  become  too  large  to  be  satisfactory, 
and  late  enough  so  that  they  do  not  mature  seed.  Corn,  Jap- 
anese millet,  or  sorghum  is  most  commonly  used,  and  the  prac- 
tice is  a  good  one  where  land  is  available,  and  where  some  other 
kind  of  material,  such  as  straw,  cannot  be  had,  which  yields 
some  other  return  along  with  the  mulch. 

The  date  of  applying  the  mulch  will  vary  with  the  climate 
and  also  somewhat  with  the  size  of  the  plantation.  The  prin- 
cipal question,  so  far  as  the  welfare  of  the  bed  is  concerned, 
which  decides  the  date  of  application,  is  the  freezing  of  the  soil. 
Somewhat  better  results  are  secured  if  the  ground  freezes  fairly 
solid  before  the  mulch  is  applied.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
soil  freezes  and  thaws  repeatedly  before  it  is  finally  frozen  solid 
the  plants  are  thereby  damaged  and  the  mulch  ought  to  be 
applied  earlier. 

How  Applied. — In  large-sized  plantations  it  is  necessary  to 


HOW  APPLIED 


131 


drive  on  the  bed  with  the  loads  of  mulch  (Fig.  57),  and,  if 
possible,  this  ought  to  be  deferred  until  after  the  surface  of  the 
gi-ouud  has  frozen  solidly  enough  to  hold  up  the  team,  otherwise 


L-_^ 


^^^ 


Fig,  57. — Applying  the  mulch  to  a  large  strawberry  bed.    R.  M.  Kellogg  Co., 
Three  Rivers.  Mich. 


Fig.  58. —  Mulching  the  strawberry  bed  after  snow  has  fallen.     An  advantageous  method 
if  the  snow  is  not  too  deep  as  it  assists  in  getting  an  even  distribution  of  the  mulch. 

considerable  damage  will  be  done  to  the  bed  by  horses  and 
wagon.  Of  course,  as  suggested  above,  where  winter  comes  on 
very  slowly  this  work  cannot  usually  be  deferred  so  long,  as  the 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  soil  before  it  is  finally 
frozen  solid  may  do  much  more  damage  to  the  bed  than  the 
teams  would  do. 


132  MULCHING  THE  STRAWBERRY   BED 

On  smaller  plantations  the  material  for  mulching  should  be 
dumped  in  piles  around  the  sides  of  the  bed  and  then  be  carried 
to  the  bed  with  forks  (Fig.  58).  This  makes  it  possible  to 
apply  the  mulch  at  any  time  that  is  desired. 

Where  rather  fine  material  is  used  for  mulching,  it  may 
often  be  applied  very  satisfactorily  with  a  manure  spreader. 

Quantity. — Only  a  light  coating  of  the  mulch  is  necessary,  as 
it  is  not  expected  that  it  will  prevent  the  soil  from  freezing,  but 


I 


Fig.  59. — The  strawberry  bed  vmderits  winter  ir;i  i;.jderately  light  appli- 

cation is  bet  I. 

merely  cause  it  to  freeze  and  thaw  much  more  slowly,  so  that  dur- 
ing a  short  mild  spell  it  remains  frozen.  A  layer  of  mulch  from 
one  to  two  inches  in  thickness  will  be  ample  for  all  purposes  and 
will  avoid  any  danger  of  smothering  the  plants  which  sometimes 
happens  when  the  mulch  is  applied  too  thickly.  In  general  the 
finer  the  material  the  less  of  it  should  be  applied. 

Uniformity. — The  mulch  ought  to  be  uniform  in  thickness 
over  the  entire  surface,  between  the  rows  as  well  as  on  top  of 
them ;  but  if  there  is  a  scarcity  of  material  and  it  becomes  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  economize  somewhere,  the  rows  are,  of  course, 
more  important  than  the  spaces  (Fig.  59). 

It  requires  some  care  to  secure  uniformity  of  thickness,  par- 


REMOVAL  TIME  133 

ticnlarly  with  materials  which  have  been  stacked  up  for  some 
time  and  have  thereby  become  firmly  matted  together.  They 
should  be  well  shaken  out  in  applying  so  that  the  solid  lumps  of 
the  materials  may  be  detected  and  broken  up. 

In  Windy  Places.^ — Occasionally  in  very  windy  locations  it 
becomes  necessary  to  anchor  the  mulch  in  some  way,  and  some 
sort  of  boughs  thrown  on  top  of  it  is  the  best  plan.  If  the 
windward  side  of  the  bed  and  the  most  exposed  sides  of  any 
slopes  can  be  held  in  place  in  this  way  it  will  frequently  result 
in  keeping  the  whole  bed  in  pretty  fair  shape. 

In  cases  of  this  kind,  it  is,  of  course,  desirable  to  use  the 
coarsest  materials  for  mulching,  and  here,  if  anywhere,  such 
materials  as  corn  stalks  or  sorghum  would  be  useful. 

Removal  Time. — In  deciding  when  to  remove  the  mulch  in 
the  spring,  two  points  in  particular  must  bo  borne  in  mind :  First, 
that  the  mulch  must  stay  on  as  long  as  it  is  needed  to  protect  the 
plants  from  danger  by  cold,  and  second,  that  it  must  not  stay  on 
so  long  that  the  plants  will  grow  under  the  mulch  and  thus 
be  injured  when  the  mulch  is  removed  and  they  are  exposed 
to  the  light.  There  is  usually  no  difficulty  in  meeting  both 
these  requirements. 

To  meet  the  first  point,  the  mulch  ought  to  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  bed  until  all  danger  of  any  great  degree  of  freez- 
ing and  thawing  has  passed.  A  fairly  good  rule  is  to  leave  it  on 
until  there  is  no  likelihood  of  the  thermometer  going  as  low  as 
20  degTces  above  zero.  If  it  does  not  go  lower  than  that  there 
is  usually  no  damage  to  the  plants.  To  meet  the  second  require- 
ment one  should  examine  the  bed  from  time  to  time  and  see 
how  the  plants  are  coming  along  and  get  the  mulch  off  in  time. 
Of  course,  in  the  final  analysis  it  depends  on  "  the  weather 
man  "  whether  there  is  any  severe  freezing  after  the  plants 
have  started  to  grow,  but  usually  he  is  '''accommodating  enough  " 
so  that  there  is  not. 

Another  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  deciding  when  to  re- 
move the  mulch  is  whether  one  wants  early  or  late  berries.  If 
early  berries  are  very  desirable,  as  they  often  are,  it  is  worth 
while  to  run  some  risk  of  damage  by  cold  in  order  to  get  the 


iU 


MULCHING  THE  STRAWBERRY  BED 


mulch  off  early  and  thus  start  the  plants  iuto  growth.  Some 
growers  even  go  so  far  as  to  leave  the  wiuter  mulch  off  altogether 
ou  this  accouut.  Ou  the  other  haud,  where  late  berries  are 
wanted  the  mulch  should  be  kept  on  as  late  as  possible  and  still 
not  run  any  great  risk  of  damaging  the  plants. 

How  to  Remove  Mulch. — In  the  actual  removal  of  the  mulch 
various  methods  are  used.  Where  no  spring  cultivation  is  at- 
tempted, which  is  the  practice  of  the  great  majority  of  straw- 


FlG.  60. — Opening  the  mulch  over  the  rows  in  the  spring.  The  less  the  mulch  can  be 
disturbed  and  still  insure  the  plants  pushing  through,  the  more  effective  the  mulch  will  be  in 
keeping  the  briers  clean,  keeping  down  weeds  and  preventing  loss  of  moisture.  The  straw  is 
sometimes  parted  with  a  hay  fork. 

berry  growers,  the  mulch  over  the  rows  should  be  opened  up  only 
enough  to  allow  the  plants  to  push  through.  The  more  mulch 
we  can  retain  and  still  get  the  plants  through,  the  greater  the 
benefit  we  will  get,  in  retaining  moisture,  keeping  down  the 
weeds  and  keeping  the  berries  clean.  If  only  a  light  mulch  has 
been  applied  it  is  generally  sufficient  to  send  men  over  the  bed 
and  merely  part  the  mulch  a  little  over  the  plants.  This  is  usu- 
ally done  with  the  hands  (Fig.  60).  Where  more  mulch  has  been 
applied  some  of  it  may  be  removed  from  the  rows  and  placed 
between  them.  Usually  no  mulch  is  taken  entirely  off  the  bed, 
and  it  is  better  not  to  do  so  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

The  method  of  handling  the  mulch  when  spring  cultivation 
is  practiced  has  been  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  cultivation. 


QUESTIONS  135 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  much  can  a  crop  of  strawberries  be  retarded  by  a  mulch?     Have 

you  ever  seen  it  done? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  this  practice? 

3.  What  are  the  dangers  from  its  use? 

4.  How  and  why  does  a  mulch  affect  the  moisture  in  the  soil  ? 

5.  What  do  you  consider  is  the  most  important  single  function  of  a  mulch? 
G.  What  materials  have  you  seen  used  as  a  mulch  on  strawberry  beds? 

7.  What  material  is  most  commonly  used  in  your  section?     Do  you  think 

it  is  a  good  one? 

8.  What  do  you  think  of  the  plan  of  growing  a  mulch  on  the  bed? 

9.  When  is  the  mulch  applied?     How? 
10.  When  is  the  mulch  removed?    How? 


CHAPTER  XV 
RENOVATING  OLD  STRAWBERRY   BEDS 

The  practice  of  dillerent  growers  varies  greatly  as  to  the 
number  of  crops  harvested  from  a  strawberry  bed.  Many  north- 
em  gi-ow^ers  find  it  cheaper  and  better  to  set  a  new  bed  each 
year  and  plow  under  the  old  one  after  the  fniit  is  harvested. 
Others  renovate  the  old  bed  and  grow  a  second  crop.  And  this 
process  of  renovating  is  repeated  year  after  year  by  a  few 
growers  until  as  many  as  four  or  five  crops  have  been  grown. 
Beds  last  from  two  to  five  years  in  the  southern  states.  In  the 
extreme  West  the  beds  are  kept  for  several  years. 

Number  of  Crops. — For  the  most  part,  however,  the  ques- 
tion lies  between  growing  one  or  growing  tw^o  crops  on  the  bed. 
Those  who  advocate  one  crop  claim  that  it  is  cheaper  to  fit  new 
land  and  set  out  new  plants  than  it  is  to  renovate  the  old  bed ; 
and,  moreover,  that  there  is  much  less  danger  from  diseases. 
The  advocates  of  two  crops  say  that  if  properly  done  the  reno- 
vating is  not  as  expensive  as  setting  a  new  bed,  that  the  fruit 
ripens  earlier  and  that  frequently  a  larger  crop  is  raised. 

Like  many  other  questions,  this  one,  no  doubt,  depends  on 
circumstances.  If  the  bed  has  been  well  cared  for  during  its 
first  year,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  keeping  the  weeds  under 
control,  if  fungous  diseases  have  not  developed,  or  if  spraying 
has  been  done  to  prevent  them,  and  if  the  soil  is  fairly  light  so 
that  it  can  be  brought  back  into  good  physical  condition  with- 
out too  much  labor,  and  furtheniiore,  if  early  berries  are  de- 
sired, then  probably  a  second  or  even  a  third  crop  may  be 
grown  to  advantage.  But  if  these  conditions  do  not  obtain  then 
it  is  probably  better  to  take  off  a  single  crop  and  plow  up 
the  plantation. 

Methods  of  Renovation. — If  the  bed  is  to  be  renovated  sev- 
eral general  methods  may  be  used,  but  the  following  will  be 
found  a  satisfactory  plan  : 

Moving  and  Burning. — First  mow  over  the  bed  either  with 
136 


FRESH  TILTH  137 

a  scjthe  or  a  mowing  machine,  depending  on  the  size  of  the 
bed.  If  the  machine  is  used,  tilt  the  cutter  bar  so  as  not  to 
mow  the  vines  oft"  too  short.  After  mowing,  these  old  leaves, 
together  with  the  mulch  applied  the  previous  autumn,  may 
either  be  raked  up  and  hauled  oil'  the  bed  and  then  burned,  or 
they  may  be  allowed  to  dry  and  then  the  whole  bed  be  burned 
oif,  or  they  may  be  raked  in  between  the  rows  and  burned  there. 
Probably  the  second  plan  is  the  ideal  one  if  it  can  be  handled 
just  right,  but  two  difficulties  are  likely  to  be  encountered; 
either  there  will  be  so  many  green  strawberry  leaves  and  weeds 
left  that  the  old  bed  will  not  burn,  or  else,  if  the  mulch  has  been 
])lentiful,  there  will  be  so  much  of  this  and  the  dry  leaves  com- 
bined that  the  fire  will  be  so  hot  as  to  injure  the  crowns  of  the 
plants  one  wishes  to  save.  If  this  method  of  burning  is  to  be 
practiced  it  is  well  to  go  over  the  bed  with  a  hay  tedder  to  stir 
up  the  mulch  and  old  leaves  so  that  they  will  be  more  evenly 
distributed  and  will  dry  out  better.  The  two  gi'eat  advantages 
of  this  method  over  the  others  are  that  one  saves  all  the  ash 
from  the  bui-ned  leaves  and  mulch,  which  ash  is  distributed 
uniformly  over  the  bed,  and  second,  that  insects  and  their  eggs 
and  fungous  spores  are  more  thoroughly  destroyed. 

Fresh  Tilth. — Having  disposed  of  the  old  leaves  and  mulch, 
the  next  operation  is  to  stir  up  the  soil  and  get  it  back  into  good 
tilth  to  stimulate  groAvth  of  the  plants  that  are  saved  and  to 
provide  good  conditions  for  the  new  plants  which  will  develop 
from  the  runners  sent  out  by  those  plants.  The  simplest  method, 
but  usually  the  least  satisfactory,  is  to  use  a  cultivator  with 
large  heavy  teeth  and  go  back  and  forth  repeatedly  between  the 
rows,  loosening  up  the  soil  and  tearing  out  the  plants  from  the 
sides  of  the  rows  until  only  a  fairly  narrow  strip  of  the  old 
plants  is  left  (say  eight  to  fifteen  inches),  and  until  the  soil  is 
in  reasonably  good  physical  condition  again.  With  light  soil 
which  is  not  too  dry,  it  is  surprising  into  what  satisfactory^  con- 
dition the  soil  can  be  brought  by  this  method.  Yet  it  does  not, 
of  course,  stir  the  soil  as  deeply  as  plowing.  One  should  not 
expect  to  finish  the  work  at  a  single  session,  but  return  to  it  sev- 
eral times,  after  intervals  of  two  or  three  days. 


138  RENOVATING  OLD  STRAWBERRY  BEDS 

Plowing  under  Plants. — It  is,  however,  usually  better  to 
employ  a  plow,  preferably  a  small  one,  for  this  preliminary 
work  of  breaking  up  the  soil.  The  first  question  to  decide  is 
what  part  of  the  old  row  shall  be  saved.  Theoretically  it  is 
better  to  save  one  edge  of  the  row  because  this  insures  getting 
rid  of  all  the  old  plants  that  were  set  out  the  year  before  and 
retaining  only  those  which  grew  as  runners  the  previous  season. 
But  practically  this  advantage  may  be  more  than  offset  by  the 
fact  that  the  edges  of  the  rows  are  likely  to  have  a  good  many 
weeds  in  them  while  the  center,  where  the  foliage  of  the  straw- 
beri-y  plants  has  been  the  most  dense,  is  comparatively  free  of 
weeds.  If  one  deeides  on  retaining  the  center,  the  simplest 
thing  to  do  is  to  turn  one  furrow  from  each  side  into  the  space 
between  two  rows  (Fig.  61)  and  then  with  a  cultivator  (Fig. 
62)  work  dowTi  the  soil  thus  turned  up  until  it  is  in  good  condi- 
tion. The  alternative  of  this  plan  is  to  use  a  swivel  plow  and 
begin  at  one  side  of  the  bed  and  turn  all  the  furrows  in  one 
direction,  but  retaining,  undisturbed,  the  center  of  each  straw- 
berry row.  While  this  may  leave  the  bed  looking  better  when 
the  plowing  is  finished,  it  does  not  usually  work  out  quite  so 
well  as  the  other  plan. 

If  it  is  decided  to  save  a  strip  of  plants  along  one  side  of  the 
row  instead  of  in  the  middle  as  just  discussed,  the  plowing  can 
be  done  much  as  outlined  above,  except  that  the  first  furrow 
should  be  plowed  along  the  center  of  the  old  strawberry  row 
which  will  root  out  the  oldest  plants,  and  then  a  return  furrow 
ploAved  against  this  from  the  middle  of  the  old  original  space. 

Cultivation  after  Plowing. — ^Yhen  the  plowing  has  been 
finished  the  soil  which  has  been  thrown  up  by  the  plow  should 
be  worked  down  into  fine  condition,  using  a  cultivator  with 
large  teeth,  and  going  over  the  bed  repeatedly  as  outlined  for 
the  work  where  no  plowing  is  attempted. 

Fertilizer. — Some  fertilizing  ought  to  be  done  at  this  time 
to  start  the  old  plants  into  renewed  growi^h  and  in  particular  to 
stimulate  the  production  of  runners.  A  fairly  heavy  application 
of  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  (say  fifteen  cords  per  acre), 
when  this  is  available,  will  be  found  admirable.     But  as  this  is 


FRESH  TILTH 


139 


H^     ~M^^ 


Fig.  6i. — Plowing  to  renovate  an  old  strawberry  bed.    One  furrow  is  turned  from  each  side 
of  the  old  row  into  the  space  between  the  rows. 


^^  -'■:lle^ 


Fig.  62. — Following  the  plow  with  the  cultivator  in  renovating  a  strawberry  bed.     The 
larger-toothed  cultivator  best. 


140 


RENOVATING  OLD  STRAWBERRY  BEDS 


frequently  not  to  be  bad,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  rely  on  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  Formulas  recommended  vary  greatly, 
partly  because  conditions  vary  and  partly  because  men's  ideas  of 
wbat  is  necessary  vary.  Tbe  following  will  be  found  satisfactory 
under  average  conditions,  the  amounts  given  being  for  an  acre : 


Fig.  63. — Sowing  fertilizer  on  a  renovated  strawberry  bed.    The  bulk  of  thi-  fertilizer  should 
go  on  the  rows  and  not  between  them. 

100  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda 

250    "      Tankage 

400    "    Acid  Phospliate 

750  lbs.  per  acre. 

Or,  if  tankage  is  not  available: 

250  lbs.  Nitrate  of  Soda 
400     "    Acid  Phospbate 

650  lbs.  per  acre. 

To  either  of  these  may  be  added  to  advantage  in  normal  times 
two  hundred  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  or  an  equal  amount  of 
high-grade  sulfate  of  potash.  Fifty  bushels  of  unleached  hard- 
wood ashes  make  an  excellent  substitute  for  the  above  potash 
at  anv  time. 


HOEING 


141 


How  to  Spread  Fertilizer.— Whatever  the  fertilizer  applied, 
whether  barnyard  manure,  commercial  fertilizer,  or  wood  ashes, 
the  bulk  of  it  ought  to  go  along  the  rows  and  not  between  them. 
This  can  be  accomplished  best  by  using  a  hand-distributing  ma- 
chine or  by  applying  the  materials  broadcast  by  hand  (Fig.  63). 
In  either  of  these  methods,  while  the  bulk  of  the  fertilizer  will 
go  on  the  row,  enough  of  it  will  fall  by  the  side  of  the  row  to 
'  amply  provide  for  the  new  runners  which  will  set  later.  A 
horse-drawn  fertilizer  sower  ^ 
is  sometimes  used  for  this 
work,  or  the  fertilizer  is  sown 
by  hand  between  the  rows  or 
over  the  entire  surface.  The 
objection  to  either  of  these 
methods  is  that  a  large  part 
of  the  fertilizer  falls  in  the 
cultivated  strip  between  the 
rows  where  it  is  of  little  value 
to  the  growing  plants,  as 
strawberries  do  not  forage 
very  Avidely. 

Time  of  Spreading  Solu- 
ble Fertilizers. — In  applying 
commercial  fertilizers  one 
should  be  careful  to  select  a 
time  M'hen  the  plants  are  thoroughly  dry,  as  any  dampness  will 
cause  the  nitrate  of  soda  and  other  readily  soluble  materials  to  go 
into  solution,  and  if  this  happens  on  the  leaves  or  among  the  buds 
the  tissues  are  likely  to  be  seriously  damaged. 

Hoeing. — Either  before  or  after  the  fertilizer  is  sown  the 
strip  of  plants  which  has  been  saved  should  be  given  a  thorough 
hoeing  (Fig.  64).  Here  is  another  point  where  the  practice  of 
different  growers  varies  greatly.  Sometimes  no  hoeing  is  done 
except  such  as  is  necessary  to  root  out  the  weeds,  and  in  other 
cases  plants  and  weeds  are  hoed  out  for  a  space  of  a  foot  or  so  in 
the  row,  then  an  equal  space  is  left  with  the  strawberry  plants 
in  it,  then  another  hoed  space,  and  so  on.     If  the  renovation  is 


Fig.  64.- — Hoeing  the  renovated  strawberry 
bed.  A  sharp-pointed  hoe.  such  as  is  shown  at 
the  extreme  left  in  figure  14,  will  be  found  best 
for  this  work. 


142 


RENOVATING  OLD  STRAWBERRY  BEDS 


Fiu.   65. — Plowing  down  the  old  strawberry  bed.    Beds  are  abandoned  most  often  on  account 
of  weeds.      Compare  with  figure  66. 


Pig.    66. — Crop  of  buckwheat   following  a  crop  of  strawberries.      Same   bed   as   shown 
in  figure  65. 

done  at  once  after  the  crop  is  harvested,  so  that  there  is  still 
ample  time  for  the  remaining  plants  to  send  out  new  runners, 
probably  the  last  mentioned  method  is  best.  But  where  the 
time  for  runner  production  is  short,  more  old  plants  should  be 
retained  to  take  part  in  the  operation  and  to  furnish,  in  them- 
selves, fruiting  plantft  for  the  next  season. 


QUESTIONS  143 

From  this  point  on  the  treatment  of  the  renovated  or  re- 
newed bed  is  the  same  as  for  one  newly  set. 

Cost  of  Renovation. — As  an  indication  of  the  cost  of  reno- 
vating a  strawberry  bod  the  following  figures  may  be  of  interest. 
They  are  the  actual  cost  for  a  bed  of  almost  exactly  an  acre : 

Mowing  old  leaves — man  and  team,  IJ  hrs.  @  70  centa.  .  .  .$  1  05 

Raking,  man  and  horse,  i  hr.  @  50  cents "25 

Hauling  of  leaves,  man  and  liorse,  2  hrs.  @  50  cents 1  00 

Plowing  and  cultivating  first  time,  21  hrs.   @   50  cents..    10  50 

Sowing  fertilizer,  4  hrs.  @  25  cents 1  00 

Hoeing.  45  hrs.  @  25  cents 11  25 

Cultivating,  second  time,  man  and  horse  G  hrs.  @  50  cents.      .3  00 

Total  for  one  acre $28  05 

There  is,  of  course,  no  cost  for  plants  in  this  method.  This 
is  always  a  considerable  item  of  expense  in  a  new  bed  and  prob- 
ably ought  to  be  charged  up  even  though  the  plants  may  not  be 
bought  but  secured  from  another  bed  on  the  place. 

When  the  bed  is  finally  abandoned  it  should  be  plowed 
under  (Fig.  05  )  as  quickly  as  possible  after  the  last  crop  of  fruit 
is  harvested,  and  the  land  either  sown  to  a  cover  crop  or  some 
such  crop  as  late  cabbages  grown  (Fig.  66). 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  manj^  crops  of  fruit  are  generally  taken  from  a  strawberry  bed? 

2.  What  are  the  arguments  in  favor  of  taking  only  a  few  crops  ? 

3.  How  many  crops  do  the  best  growers  in  your  section  take? 

4.  Why  and  how  are  the  old  leaves  destroyed  when  one  renovates  a  bed? 

5.  Descrilx!  the  plowing,  in  the  process  of  renovating  a  strawberry  bed. 

6.  How  is  the  soil  treated  after  the  plowing? 

7.  What  fertilizers  are  used  on  the  renovated  bed  and  how  are  they  applied? 

8.  What  hoeing  is  necessary  in  renovating  a  bed? 

9.  Give  the  approximate  cost  of  renovating  an  acre  of  strawberries.    What 

are  the  most  expensive  items? 

10.  Do  you  think  it  would  be  more  profitable  to  set  a  new  bed  or  renovate 

an  old  one? 

11.  Did  you  ever   renovate  a  stravvbeny   bed?     If  so,  were  you  satisfied 

with  the  returns? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  STRAWBERRIES 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  crucial  point  in  making  a 
crop  of  strawberries  profitable  comes  at  the  very  end,  when  one 
attempts  to  harvest  and  market  them.  More  men  fail  here  than 
anywhere  else.  It  introduces  new  and  entirely  different  prob- 
lems. There  is  more  help  to  handle,  and  it  is  a  different  kind  of 
help.  There  are  decisions  to  be  made  and  made  quickly.  And 
a  mistake  cannot  be  remedied  as  it  can  in  the  earlier  work  on 
the  plantation. 

Preparation. — One  of  the  most  important  points  in  handling 
the  situation  satisfactorily  is  to  have  everything  in  readiness 
beforehand,  crates  and  baskets  on  hand,  pickers  engaged, 
quarters  ready,  and  markets  looked  up. 

The  labor  question  is  always  a  serious  one.  It  is  difficult 
to  have  enough  help  in  the  height  of  the  season  and  not  too  much 
when  the  picking  is  more  slack.  In  particular  it  is  difficult  to 
hold  the  pickers  to  the  end  of  the  season.  But  with  proper  fore- 
thought this  can  usually  be  accomplished.  Like  everything  else, 
if  met  in  time,  a  good  many  of  the  difficulties  will  disappear. 

Women  Pichers. — As  a  rule,  women  who  are  accustomed  to 
outdoor  labor  make  the  very  best  pickers.  They  are  deft,  rapid, 
careful,  and  interested  in  getting  the  work  along.  If  it  is  not 
possible  to  get  all  women  for  the  picking  crew,  a  few  of  them 
will  tend  to  steady  the  rest  of  the  pickers  and  make  things  go 
more  smoothly. 

Men  of  the  right  type  will  do  well  where  the  picking  is  good, 
but  they  are  usually  not  so  rapid  workers  as  women  and  not 
quite  so  easily  managed. 

Boys  and  girls,,  from  ten  years  up,  are  most  commonly  used 

as  pickers,  but  are  naturally,  as  a  rule,  least  satisfactory.     They 

play  more,  pick  less,  tire  more  quickly,  and  are  more  apt  to 

want  to  pick  lying  down.    A  few  children  mixed  in  with  adults 

144 


MANAGEMENT  OF  PICKERS  145 

will   do   very   well,    but   an   entire   crew  of   them   is   open  to 
serious  objections. 

Whole  Families. — Where  the  areas  to  be  picked  are  large, 
and  particularly  where  other  fruits  follow  strawberries  so  that 
the  work  on  the  place  will  continue  over  a  long  season,  it  is 
often  possible  to  get  whole  families  to  come  and  settle  down  for 
the  picking  season,  which  makes  an  excellent  arrangement. 

Number  of  Pickers  Needed. — In  any  case,  the  pickers  ought 
to  be  engaged  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible,  and  just  as 
definite  an  agreement  made  with  them  as  possible.  The  number 
needed  per  acre  will  vary  greatly  according  to  the  crop,  the 
pickers'  ability,  whether  it  is  the  height  of  the  season  or  not; 
but  for  an  average  crop  four  or  five  good  pickers  will  usually 
handle  an  acre. 

Prices  paid  vary  with  the  locality,  the  season  and  the  pickers, 
but  two  cents  per  quart  is  the  most  common  rate.  An  excellent 
way  to  hold  the  pickers  through  to  the  end  of  the  season  is  to 
offer  a  bonus  for  those  who  stay  till  the  work  is  done.  Some 
growers  pay  one  and  one-half  cents  and  make  it  up  to  two  cents 
at  the  end  of  the  season  if  the  picker  has  stayed  right  through. 

Income  for  Pickers. — It  ought  to  be  said  right  here,  though 
perhaps  it  hardly  needs  to  be  mentioned,  that  nothing  will  do  so 
much  towards  keeping  the  pickers  happy  and  contented  as  to 
have  a  good  crop  of  fruit  for  them  to  pick.  In  good  picking, 
even  at  two  cents  a  box,  an  expert  picker  will  frequently  make 
from  three  to  five  dollars  per  day,  and  much  higher  records 
have  been  made;  while  with  small  berries  and  few  of  them, 
the  day's  wage  is  correspondingly  lower  and  the  picker 
correspondingly  disheartened. 

Management  of  Pickers. — In  the  management  of  the  pickers 
in  the  field  the  following  points  will  be  found  helpful : 

1.  Assign  each  picker  to  a  special  row  or  rows.  This  is 
vital  to  success,  and  if  the  same  row  can  be  assigned  to  a  picker 
right  through  the  season,  so  much  the  better.  Where  this  is 
done  there  is  no  chance  for  dispute  as  to  who  was  responsible 
for  poor  picking. 

2,  A  Field  Boss. — If  the  operations  are  at  all  large  there 
10 


146 


HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  STRAWBERRIES 


ought  to  be  a  field  boss  who  shall  keep  track  of  the  picking,  see 
that  it  is  well  done,  keep  the  records  of  how  many  are  picked  by 
each  pei*soii,  etc. 

3.  Record  Cards. — In  keeping  tally  on  the  number  of  boxes 
picked,  the  most  satisfactory  plan  is  to  use  a  card  such  as  is 
sho^\^l  in  figure  67.  Two  such  cards  ought  to  be  used  for  each 
picker,  one  to  be  kept  by  the  foreman  and  the  other  by  the  picker. 
Then  when  a  carrier  full  of  berries  is  brought  in  by  the  picker, 
the  foreman  places  the  two  cards  together  and  punches  out 


1^1 

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Fig.  67. — Berry  picker's  card  used  in  keeping  tally  of  the  number  of  boxes  picked. 

(using  a  regular  conductor's  punch)  a  number  equal  to  the  num- 
ber of  boxes  brought  in.  Under  this  arrangement  there  is  no 
chance  for  dispute,  each  side  has  a  card  and  the  two  are,  or 
ought  to  be,  exactly  alike.  If  only  the  foreman  has  a  card,  then 
the  picker  is  apt  to  think  that  he  has  forgotten  to  punch  for 
some  baskets ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  only  one  card, 
and  this  is  held  by  the  picker,  there  is  always  the  danger  that 
some  other  punch  than  the  foreman's  may  be  used  on  it. 

4.  Carriers.  Give  Each  Picker  a  Carrier. — This  should 
never  hold  more  than  six  baskets,  and  a  four-box  carrier  has  the 
advantage  of  being  lighter  to  carry  and  of  exposing  the  berries  a 
shorter  time  to  the  sun  and  heat  while  the  picker  is  filling  the 


DEGREE  OF  RIPENESS 


147 


boxes.  Several  types  of  these  carriers  are  shown  in  figures  68  to 
72.  Those  with  legs  have  the  advantage  that  if  they  are  set  down 
on  the  row  they  are  not  so  likely  to  bruise  the  berries  on  the 
vines  as  are  those  without  legs. 

5.  Degree  of  Ripeness. — Be  careful  as  to  the  degree  of  ripe- 
ness of  the  berries  when  picked.    If  they  are  for  nearby  markets 


ix-basket  carrier  with  legs.    This  has  the  advantage  of  not  mashing  the  berries 
on  the  vines  if  the  carrier  is  set  down  on  the  row. 

or  if  the  weather  is  cool,  they  can  be  allowed  to  get  more  nearly 
ripe  than  they  can  for  distant  markets  or  in  hot  weather.  For  a 
really  local  market,  where  the  berries  are  eaten  the  same  day 
they  are  picked,  they  should  be  allowed  to  get  fully  ripe  on  the 
vines.  They  are  never  quite  so  good  when  they  have  to  ripen 
after  picking,  and  this  is  one  of  the  advantages  which  the  local 
grower  has  over  his  more  distant  rival.  It  explains  why  the 
price  of  berries  at  once  goes  up  when  the  first  "  locals  "  come 


148       HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  STRAWBERRIES 

in.     There  is  a  good  business  for  any  man  who  will  grow  good 
ben'ies  for  even  a  small  local  market. 

As  the  distance  to  market  increases  the  degTee  of  ripeness 
must  decrease.  For  distant  markets  three-fourths  ripe  is  as 
mature  as  they  should  be  to  stand  shipment  well.  And  it 
ought  always  to  be  kept  in  mind  that  of  the  two  extremes, 
under-ripeness  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  over-ripeness. 


Fig.  69. — A  handy  type  of  field  berry 
carrier.  The  small  size  makes  it  light  to 
carry,  and  the  berries  are  not  exposed  so 
long  to  the  heat  while  the  pickers  fill  the 
boxes. 


Fig.  70. — A  good  type  of  field  berry  carrier. 


Fig.  71. — A  six-basket  carrier  for  field  use 
A  strong  type  not  easily  broken. 


Fig.   72. — A  convenient  type  of  field  berry 
carrier. 


6.  Keep  the  different  varieties  separate  as  they  are  picked. 
In  any  bed  there  are  likely  to  be  two  or  three  varieties,  at  least, 
and  the  market  will  handle  them  better  if  each  sort  is  put  into 
crates  by  itself. 

Rules  for  Pickers. — It  will  assist  very  materially  if  the 
pickers  are  thoroughly  coached  at  the  start  on  hoAv  the  fruit 
should  be  picked  and  are  given  a  set  of  rules,  either  orally  or 
printed  on  a  card,  suggesting  just  what  is  desirable  and  what  is 


EQUIPMENT  149 

not.     The  following  are  some  of  the  impoi-tant  points  to  be 
included  in  such  rules : 

1.  Stem  and  Calyx. — Always  pick  with  the  calyx  and  a 
small  piece  of  the  stem  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long  attached 
to  the  berry.  If  the  hulls  are  pulled  otf  the  Hesh  is  sure  to  be 
bruised  more  or  less,  which  causes  the  berries  to  wilt  and  in 
time  to  begin  to  decay.  Moreover,  the  hulls  act  as  a  packing  to 
keep  the  berries  in  good  condition  in  transit. 

2.  Clean  Picking. — Pick  the  row'  clean.  Berries  too  small 
or  poor  to  be  marketed  should  be  picked  oif  and  dropped  on  the 
ground.  Xothing  is  more  disastrous  than  to  leave  some  ripe 
berries  at  one  picking,  for  they  become  over-ripe  and  soft  before 
the  next  picking,  and  unless  they  are  discarded  then  by  the 
picker  they  will  ruin  the  whole  box. 

3.  Fill  the  Baskets  Full. — It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to 
fill  up  the  baskets  at  the  packing  shed,  and  if  the  pickers  are 
started  right  at  the  beginning  and  told  that  this  rule  will  be 
enforced,  there  will  usually  be  no  trouble.  The  grower  ought  to 
to  get  pay  for  nearly  as  many  quarts  as  he  pays  to  have  picked, 
but  in  actual  practice  there  is  often  an  alarming  shrinkage  due 
to  these  scant  baskets  from  the  pickers. 

4.  Avoid  Bruising. — Do  not  hold  more  than  two  or  three 
berries  in  the  hand  at  one  time.  If  more  than  this  number  are 
held  they  are  sure  to  be  bruised. 

5.  Place  the  berries  in  the  box — do  not  throw  them  in. 
Strawberries  are  very  tender  and  a  little  bruising  at  picking 
time  may  be  a  serious  matter  by  the  time  the  housewife  gets 
the  berries. 

6.  Grading  While  Picking. — With  adult  pickers  it  is  pos- 
sible to  have  the  berries  se})arated  into  two  grades  as  they  are 
picked  which,  while  it  may  not  be  final,  will  at  least  help  mate- 
rially in  the  later  grading. 

Equipment. — In  the  matter  of  equipment  it  is  very  desir- 
able, as  already  suggested,  to  have  everything  in  readiness  in 
plenty  of  time.  The  boxes  and  crates  ought  to  be  ordered  a 
long  time  in  advance,  partly  to  make  sure  of  having  them  when 
wanted,  and  partly  because  they  are  almost  certain  to  advance 


150       HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  STRAWBERRIES 

iu  price  later  in  the  season.  As  a  nile,  it  is  better  to  have 
nothing  but  clean,  absolutely  fresh  stock.  This  is  always  true 
with  the  baskets.  With  the  crates  it  is  sometimes  possible  in 
local  northern  markets  which  have  shipped  in  a  good  many 
berries  from  the  South  to  pick  up  good  clean  ones  that  are 
entirely  satisfactory  and  much  cheaper  than  new  ones  would  be. 
But  good  quality  baskets  and  crates  that  are  clean  and  attract 
tive  ought  always  to  be  provided.  If  these  arrive  some  time 
before  they  are  to  be  used,  they  should  be  stored  away  in  a  dry 
and  dark  place,  as  they  discolor  quickly  if  exposed  to  the  light. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  should  be  plenty  of  carriers  in 
readiness,  besides  pickers'  cards,  a  punch  for  the  foreman, 
rubber  stamps,  etc. 

A  Packing  Shed. — In  a  convenient  spot  near  the  berry  field 
a  packing  shed  should  be  erected  where  the  berries  can  be  sorted 
and  packed  and  where  a  limited  supply  of  baskets  and  crates 
may  be  kept.  Figures  122  and  123  show  types  of  these  sheds. 
The  roof  must  be  tight  enough  to  shed  rain  and  the  sides  should 
be  open,  wnth  a  shelf  or  table  around  the  outside,  on  which  the 
berries  may  be  placed  as  brought  in  by  the  pickers.  A  shutter, 
which  can  be  dropped  down  in  case  of  a  sudden  shower  accom- 
panied by  wind,  is  very  desirable  on  the  side  or  sides  from  which 
such  showers  are  likely  to  come.  But  if  there  is  a  good  over- 
hang to  the  roof  this  will  do  almost  equally  well. 

Harvesting  Operations. — In  the  general  management  of 
the  harvesting  o]3erations  the  following  points  are  worthy 
of  consideration : 

1.  Frequency  of  Picking. — As  a  rule,  the  bed  should  be 
picked  over  every  day.  At  the  beginning  of  the  season,  while 
ripe  berries  are  still  scarce,  and  at  the  last  end  when  the  berries 
are  running  smaller  and  fewer,  it  may  do  very  well  to  pick  every 
second  day,  but  in  the  height  of  the  season  much  better  results 
will  be  secured  by  daily  pickings. 

2.  Pick  when  Dry. — If  possible,  avoid  picking  when  the 
berries  are  wet.  For  nearby  markets  this  rule  may  be  disre- 
garded, but  for  fruit  which  has  to  be  shipped  it  is  almost  cast 
iron.      Moist   berries    simply    will    not    stand    up    in    transit 


HARVESTING  OPERATIONS 


151 


and  are  sure  to  decay.     Even  for  local  markets  wet  berries  are 
not  attractive. 

3.  Keep  Berries  Cool. — Keep  the  berries  as  cool  as  possible. 
Have  them  brought  in  promptly  by  the  pickers  and  never  allow 
the  crates  or  carriers  with  berries  in  them  to  stand  out  in  the  sun. 
The  shade  of  even  a  small  tree  is  helpful  (Fig.  73). 


Fig.   73. — Crates  of  strawberries  placed  temporariK  in  the  shade  of  i  sm  ill  tree      Nothing 
damages  berries  more  quickly  than  allo^ving  them  to  stand  in  the  sun 


4.  Clean  Crates.— In  handling  crates  and  boxes  about  the 
field  or  the  packing  shed  be  careful  that  they  do  not  get  soiled. 
Nothing  detracts  from  the  appearance  of  strawberries  so  much 
as  dirty  boxes  and  crates. 

5.  Hauling. — If  the  berries  are  hauled  from  the  field  to  the 
packing  shed,  and  when  they  are  hauled  from  the  shed  to  the 
car  or  to  market,  a  tnick  or  w^agon  with  good  springs  should 


152        HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  STRAWBERRIES 

always  be  used.  The  tnick  showoi  in  figure  15  will  carry  any- 
where from  one  crate  to  a  hundred  on  an  "  even  keel,"  and 
with  absolutely  no  jarring  to  hurt. 

Grading  Strawberries. — At  the  packing  shed  the  berries  may 
or  may  not  be  graded.  If  the  crop  is  especially  good,  or  if  the 
market  is  not  very  critical,  it  may  not  pay  to  grade,  or,  at  least, 
to  do  more  than  take  out  the  very  poor  berries.  But  with  a 
critical  market,  or  with  berries  that  run  quite  variable,  it  will 


Fig.  74. — Culling  pan  for  grading   strawberries.     Dimensions    4    inches    wide   at   mouth; 
8  inches  at  the  other  end;  12  inches  long;  ij/^  inches  deep. 

always  pay  to  sort  them  into  at  least  two  grades,  and  sometimes 
into  three,  ^o.  1,  ISTo.  2,  and  culls. 

For  this  grading  a  sorting  table  should  be  provided  on  which 
the  berries  may  be  turned  out  to  grade  them.  A  plain  box 
table  with  a  bottom  made  by  stretching  cheesecloth  over  the 
frame  will  be  found  very  satisfactory. 

Another  device  w^iich  will  aid  materially  in  the  work  of 
grading  is  what  is  known  as  a  culling-  or  grading-pan  (Fig.  74). 
This  is  a  metal  or  light  wood  box,  open  at  one  end,  which  is 
narrower  than  the  other  end.  It  is  about  twelve  inches  long, 
with  the  open  end  four  inches  wide  and  the  other  about  eight 
inches,  with  sides  an  inch  and  a  half  hiah.     The  berries  are 


CRATES 


153 


poured  into  this  pan  and  the  poorer  ones  picked  out,  while  the 
good  ones  are  allowed  to  pass  through  the  open  end  and  drop 
into  a  strawberry  box. 

Filling  up  the  Boxes. — Great  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  boxes  are  full.  Nothing  hurts  trade  like  scant  meas- 
ure. The  box  should  be  shaken  a  little  to  settle  the  berries  into 
place,  and  for  most  markets,  especially  good  ones,  it  should  be 
faced  on  top.  Just  what  this  facing  process  consists  of  depends 
on  the  ben-ies.     If  they  arc  large,  with  handsome,  fresh,  green 


Fig.  75- — A  box  of  large  strawberries 
faced  to  show  the  hulls.  With  berries  of  this 
kind  (large  and  with  attractive  hulls)  this 
kind  of  facing  is  probably  the  best.  Com- 
pare with  figures  76,  77,  78. 


Fig.  76. — Same  box  of  large  strawberries 
as  shown  in  figure  75,  but  faced  with  hulls 
down.  Probably  not  so  good  as  shown  in 
figure  75.  Compare  also  with  figures  77 
and  78. 


hulls,  then  the  box  will  be  most  attractive  to  the  average  cus- 
tomer if  the  hulls  show  (Fig.  75).  On  the  other  hand,  with 
medium  or  small  berries,  or  where  the  hulls  are  not  attractive 
(either  shriveled  somewhat  or  small  and  poor-colored)  the  box 
will  be  more  attractive  if  the  hulls  are  turned  down  (Figs.  76, 
77  and  78). 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  berries  on  top  should  not  be 
any  better  than  the  average  in  the  box.  It  is  fatal  to  over- 
look this  rule. 

Crates. — Strawberries  are  usually  marketed  in  crates  of 
various  sizes  and  shapes,  but  principally  in  the  twenty-four  and 
thirty^two-quart  sizes  (Fig.  79).    Larger  sizes  are  so  heavy  that 


154        HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  STRAWBERRIES 


-A  box  of  small  strawberries  faced  with  hulls  showing.  Not  attractive  because  the 
hulls  are  poor.     Compare  with  figures  75,  76  and  78. 


Fig.  78. — Same  box  of  strawberries  as  shown  in  figure  77,  but  faced  with  hulls  down.  A  better 
method  with  small  berries.     Compare  with  figures  75  and  76. 


the  expressman  is  apt  to  feel  justified  in  handling  them  more 
roughly  (which  is  quite  unnecessary),  and  smaller  sizes  are  not 
so  economical,  yet  crates  up  to  forty-eight  and  sixty-four  quarts 


REFRIGERATION 


155 


are  often  used,  especially  in  shipping  longer  distances,  and 
crates  as  small  as  twenty-four  pints  are  also  sometimes  used. 
A  tray  holding  a  single  layer  of  boxes  is  sometimes  used, 
and  for  nearby  and  good  markets  is  an  excellent  package.  The 
one  shown  in  figure  21  is  made  to  hold  twenty  quart  boxes  and 
is  painted  green,  thus  setting  off  the  berries  nicely.     It  is,  of 


Fig.  79. — A  32-quart  crate  c 
large  enough  to  be  econ 


This  is  one  of  the  popular  sizes  of  crates  as  it  is 
t  so  large  as  to  be  too  heavy  to  handle  carefully. 


course,  used  only  in  a  local  market  so  that  the  trays  are  re- 
turned to  the  grower.  A  few  such  crates  make  a  fine  display 
in  a  dealei*'s  window. 

Labels. — For  a  strictly  fancy  trade  some  attractive  label 
such  as  is  used  by  the  apple  man  is  well  worth  using  on  the 
strawberry  crates.  This  would  necessitate  a  crate  with  a  solid 
end  on  which  the  label  could  be  pasted. 

Refrigeration. — For  longer  distances  strawberries  are  often 


156        HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  STRAWBERRIES 

packed  in  wliat  are  known  as  ''  pony  refrigerators."  These  are 
strong  chests  holding  nsnally  sixty-fonr  or  eighty  qnarts,  and 
are  arranged  so  that  a  tray  of  ice  is  placed  in  the  top  of  the  re- 
frigerator, the  berries  being  cooled  as  mnch  as  possible  before 
they  are  pnt  into  the  refrigerators.  For  small  shipments  of 
berries  which  must  be  shipped  long  distances  and  which  will 
bring  high  prices,  these  refrigerators  are  vea-y  satisfactory. 
Larger  quantities  are  shipped  in  refrigerated  cars. 

Marketing  Promptly. — Strawberries  should  b©  taken  to 
market  just  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  picked  and  packed. 
The  grower  who  can  be  sure  that  his  berries  are  eaten  the  same 
day  they  are  picked  will  avoid  many  of  the  troubles  into  which 
his  less  fortunate  competitors  fall,  and  will  be  correspondingly 
popular  with  his  patrons. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Wliat  types  of  pickers  are  best  for  strawberries  and  why? 

2.  Wliat  does  it  cost  to  pick  strawberries? 

3.  How  would  you  insure  that  good  picking  would  be  done? 

4.  What  is  the  best  way  of  keeping  the  records  of  pickers  ? 

5.  What  is   the  proper   degree  of  ripeness  at  which   strawberries   should 

be  picked? 

6.  Give  a  set  of  rules  to  govern  pickers  in  their  work. 

7.  What   types   of   boxes   and  crates   are  used   for   strawberries   in  your 

section?     Do  you  think  these  are  the  best? 

8.  Describe  a  good  packing  shed. 

9.  How  frequently  ought  a  strawberry  bed  to  be  picked  over  ? 

10.  Discuss  the  grading  of  strawberries. 

11.  Describe  the  strawberry  tray  which  is  used   instead  of  the  crate.     Do 

you  think  it  is  better  than  a  crate? 

12.  Have    you    ever   seen    labels    used    on    strawberry    crates?      Describe    a 

good  one. 
1.3.  What  sizes  of  crates  have  you  seen  used  either  in  field  or  market? 
14.  Tell  what  you  can  of  sliipping  berries  with  refrigeration  or  witliout. 


RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 


CHAPTER  XVII 

SITES,  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION  FOR 

RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

There  are  about  three  factors  which  ought  to  be  considered 
in  the  choice  of  a  site  for  a  pLantation  of  any  of  the  brambles. 
These  are,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  soils,  atmospheric 
drainage,  and  exposure  or  slope. 

Soils  are  the  all-important  factor,  b€cause,  while  all  these 
fruits  will  succeed  over  a  fairly  wide  range  of  soil  types,  yet 
they  all,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  dewberry,  are  very 
dependent  on  an  abundant  and  continuous  water  supply,  and 
this  in  turn  is  influenced  by  the  soil  type  and  soil  conditions. 

If  one  may  classify  these  plants  as  to  soil  preferences,  it 
might  perhaps  be  said  that  the  dewberry  thrives  on  the  lightest 
soils  of  any  of  them,  while  the  black  raspberry  prefers  the 
heaviest  types,  with  the  red  raspberry  and  the  blackberry  inter- 
mediate. Roughly  speaking,  one  should  choose  a  sandy  loam 
for  dewberries,  and  it  may  be  a  light  sandy  loam  at  that ;  a 
heavy  sandy  loam,  a  silty  loam,  or  a  light  clay  loam  (preferably 
the  latter)  for  blackberries  and  red  raspberries;  and  a  clay  loam 
from  light  to  fairly  heavy  for  black  raspberries. 

The  one  imperative  point,  as  just  suggested,  is  that  the  mois- 
ture supply  be  kept  up,  and  a  gi-ower  might  select  a  fairly  light 
loam  and  by  keeping  it  abundantly  supplied  with  humus,  and 
by  giving  it  very  thorough  preparation  and  cultivation  to  con- 
serve his  moisture  supply,  he  might  have  even  better  success 
with  black  raspberries  than  another  grower  who  had  the  ideal 
soil,  a  clay  loam,  but  did  not  give  much  attention  to  these 
other  matters. 

In  all  eases  the  subsoil  should  be  deep  and  retentive  of 
moisture,  which  means  that  it  should  have  considerable  clay  in 
its  makeup.  iS^othing  lighter  than  a  very  heavy  sandy  loam 
subsoil  should  be  chosen  unless  one  is  forced  to  do  so,  and  some 
of  the  silty  or  the  clay  loams  are  much  to  be  preferred. 

159 


160  SITES  AND  SOILS  FOR  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

It  ought  also  to  be  said  that  there  is  a  fairly  wide  range  in 
soil  preferences  among  the  varieties  of  raspberries  or  of  black- 
berries, which  should  be  studied  bv  the  commercial  grower  and 
met  if  possible.  While  the  Cuthbert  raspberry,  for  example, 
will  succeed  on  a  gTeat  variety  of  soils,  the  Ranere  prefers  a 
more  sandy  type  and  the  June  a  clay  type. 

Atmospheric  Drainage. — The  second  factor  in  the  choice  of 
a  site  for  the  plantation  is  atmospheric  drainage.  This  is  prin- 
cipally important  for  its  effect  on  winter  cold,  since  these  fruits 
blossom  so  late  that  they  are  not  very  likely  to  be  caught  by 
spring  frosts,  and,  of  course,  are  harvested  and  out  of  the  way 
before  any  possibility  of  autumn  frosts,  at  least,  in  any  section 
where  they  should  be  grown  commercially.  But  one  of  the 
serious  dangers  with  the  grower  who  is  located  in  any  of  the 
more  northern  sections  is  winter  injury  of  the  canes,  and  this 
may  be  influenced  considerably  by  locating  the  plantation 
where  the  cold  air  will  drain  away  onto  lower  lands. 

Exposure. — Lastly,  we  have  the  question  of  slope  or  expo- 
sure, and  in  practically  all  cases  a  northern  or  northeastern 
exposure  is  to  be  preferred  if  it  can  be  secured  along  with  the 
other  desirable  factors.  If  any  of  them  are  to  be  sacrificed  this 
one  should  be  the  first  to  go. 

The  advantages  of  the  northern  slope  are  that  because  the 
sun  beats  down  on  it  less  severely  there  is  less  drying  out  of  the 
soil,  and  a  some^vhat  cooler  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  for 
the  plantation.  And  both  of  these  are  very  desirable,  though 
not  essential  to  the  success  of  the  plantation. 

One  other  factor  in  the  question  of  site  is  worth  consider- 
ing in  some  sections,  and  that  is  the  one  of  prevailing  winds.  If 
these  are  likely  to  be  strong  during  the  growing  season  or  during 
the  severest  winter  weather,  then  it  is  quite  desirable  that  the 
plantation  be  protected  from  them  either  by  choosing  land 
which  slopes  away  from  them  or  by  belts  of  timber.  The 
summer  winds  dry  cnit  the  soil  badly,  the  evaporation  varying 
directly  as  the  movement  of  the  air  over  the  surface,  and  the 
winter  winds  evaporate  moisture  from  the  canes,  thus  render- 
ing them  more  subject  to  winter  killing. 


PLOWING  161 

The  Location. — The  foregoing  are  all  important  practical 
points  which  ought  to  be  considered  in  the  locating  of  any 
plantation  of  these  fruits  and  especially  of  commercial  planta- 
tions. As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  it  is  seldom  possible  to 
satisfy  all  of  these  requirements  very  fully,  even  with  com- 
mercial plantations,  and  almost  never  with  the  home  plots. 
Other  considerations  usually  come  in  to  decide  the  matter,  par- 
ticularly the  question  of  convenience  to  the  buildings  on  the 
farm,  so  that  one  or  more  of  them  has  to  be  sacrificed. 

Preparation  of  Soil. — In  the  matter  of  getting  the  soil  ready 
for  a  plantation  of  raspberries  or  blackberries,  two  items  stand 
out  above  all  others.  These  are,  first,  vei-y  thorough  and  espe- 
cially very  deep  preparation,  and  second,  the  incorporation  of 
every  available  particle  of  humus  that  can  be  secured.  Both 
of  these  go  back,  of  course,  to  the  need  already  suggested  for 
a  liberal  and  constant  supply  of  soil  moisture,  and  both  are 
rendered  the  more  serious  because  these  plantations,  when  once 
established,  are  usually  held  for  from  five  to  ten  years,  during 
which  time  neither  the  fitting  of  the  land  nor  the  incorporation 
of  humus  can  be  carried  on  very  satisfactorily. 

Plowing. — In  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  plowing  is  first  in 
importance  and  first  in  time.  It  ought  to  be  as  deep  as  it  con- 
veniently can  be.  If  the  soil  is  of  the  right  type,  ten  inches  are 
none  too  deep,  and  it  never  ought  to  be  less  than  eight  inches. 
[f  the  soil  will  not  stand  an  eight-inch  furrow  it  should  be  used 
for  some  other  crop.  Moreover,  in  this  plowing  one  should  use 
a  plow  with  a  steep  moldboard  that  will  thoroughly  break  up  the 
furrow  slice  as  it  is  inverted.  A  good  share  of  soil  that  is 
turned  over  by  the  plow  will  not  be  affected  in  the  least  by  any 
of  the  other  implements  that  follow  in  the  process  of  fitting,  if 
we  except  some  pressure,  which  is,  of  course,  exerted  by  every 
implement  that  goes  over  the  plantation,  and  which  sei*ves  to 
compact  somewhat  this  lower  soil.  The  disk  harrow  penetrates 
the  deepest  of  any  of  them,  and  if  one  gets  down  five  inches  with 
any  of  the  ordinaiy  disks  that  are  used  to  follow  the  plow,  it  is 
all  that  can  be  expected ;  four  inches  are  much  more  common. 
Since  we  all  recognize  the  importance  of  a  thorough  pulverizing 
11 


162  SITES  AND  SOILS  FOR  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

of  the  soil,  110  argument  ought  to  be  necessary  as  to  this  point 
of  breaking  np  the  furrow  slice  and  therefore  as  to  the  type  of 
plow  to  use.  And  yet  men  continue  to  judge  good  plowing  by 
the  beauty  and  straightness  and  compactness  of  the  furrows. 

With  the  plowing  properly  done,  the  other  operations  follow 
in  regular  and  orthodox  order  with  only  this  suggestion  that 
each  one  of  them  be  intensified  as  much  as  possible,  realizing 
that  this  may  be  the  last  chance  for  ten  years  to  reach  some  of 
the  soil  that  will  be  moved. 

Adding  Humus. — As  to  increasing  the  humus  content,  no 
special  discussion  may  be  necessary.  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  overdo  the  matter.  Sod  land  plowed  under  for  the  crop 
preceding  the  berry  plantation  is  an  excellent  begiiming.  Barn- 
yard manure  in  liberal  quantities  is  very  desirable.  If  the 
scheme  of  preparation  can  be  so  arranged  that  one  or  more  crops 
of  some  rank-growing  plant,  like  buckwheat  or  barley,  can  be 
plowed  in,  so  much  the  better. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Are   blackberries   and   raspberries  grown   in   your   section?      If   so,   on 

wbat  types  of  soil  do  they  succeed  best? 

2.  What  do  you  consider  the  ideal  soil  for  raspberries?     For  blackberries? 

3.  How    would    you    insure    a    plentiful    supply    of    soil    moisture    for 

these  fruits? 

4.  Is  atmospheric  drainage  important  with  these  fruits?    Why? 

5.  On    what    exposure    or    slope    would    you    prefer    to    set    a    blackberry 

plantation  ? 

6.  How  would  you   prepare   the   soil   for   a   plantation   of   raspberries   or 

blackberries  ? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

ESTABLISHING    RASPBERRY   AND    BLACKBERRY 

PLANTATIONS 

Although  neither  the  commercial  grower  nor  the  amateur 
is  likely  to  propagate  his  own  blackherry  or  raspberry  plants,  it 
seems  worth  while  to  give  here  a  brief  discussion  of  the  ques- 
tion; and  in  order  that  we  may  get  at  it  most  intelligently  some 
preliminary  discussion  of  the  botany  of  the  brambles  is  necessary. 

They  are  all  derived  from  various  species  of  the  genus 
Rubus,  and  most  of  them  (practically  all  that  are  of  any  impor- 
tance in  this  country)  have  been  developed  from  our  wild 
American  raspberries  and  blackberries.  Indeed,  this  group  of 
fruits  is  one  of  the  most  important  contributions  that  America 
has  made  to  our  list  of  food  plants.  The  botanical  grouping  of 
these  wild  species  has  been  frequently  changed  in  the  past  and 
no  doubt  will  be  again  in  the  future.  The  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  just  now  doing  more  work  on  the  origin  of  these 
cultivated  forms  of  Biibiis,  and  this  may  and  probably  will  result 
in  changing  some  of  the  statements  given  here. 

Blackberries. — We  have,  first  of  all,  the  blackberries  which 
come  principally  from  three  species,  Ruhus  argutus,  R.  foridus, 
and  R.  frondosus.  But  the  wild  species  are  very  variable  and 
blend  into  one  another,  so  that  it  is  impossible,  and  for  present 
purposes  unnecessary,  to  determine  from  which  species  or  com- 
bination of  species  a  particular  variety  has  been  derived. 

These  wild  species  differ  in  many  minor  points,  such  as 
blossoms  (Fig.  80),  the  type  of  canes,  the  character  and  num- 
ber of  the  thorns,  and  hairs,  etc.,  which  are  botanical  rather 
than  horticultural  questions  and  need  not  be  discussed  here. 
Almost  any  of  them  have  all  the  thorns  that  are  really  neces- 
sary. The  leading  varieties  of  this  group  are  Snyder,  Eldorado, 
Taylor,  Ward,  Erie,  Mercereau,  and  Ancient  Briton. 

Dewberries. — ^ext  we  have  the  dewberries  which,  except 
for  their  trailing  habit  of  gi-owth,  .are  very  similar  to  the  black- 

163 


164  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY  PLANTATIONS 

berries.  These  are  mainly  from  three  species,  Bubus  procum- 
hens,  R.  invisus,  and  11.  Baileyanus,  with  possibly  some  help 
from  the  southern  dewberry  R.  trivialis,  and  the  California 
dewberry,  R.  vitifolius.  The  last  named  is  almost  certainly 
related  to  the  cultivated  Loganberry,  so  important  on  the  West 
coast,  though  just  what  the  connection  is  has  not  yet  been 
definitely  settled. 

The  Lucretia  and  the  Loganberry  are  by  all  odds  the  most 
prominent  varieties  in  this  group,  the  latter  being  grown  almost 
altogether  in  the  Pacific  region,  while  the  former  is  more  popu- 
lar in  the  East.  Mayes  is  a  successful  variety  for  the  middle 
section  of  the  United  States. 


Fig.  8o. — Types  of  blackberry  blossoms. 

Black  raspberries  arc  practically  all  cultivated  forms  of  the 
wild  species,  Ruhus  occidentalism  and  are  very  distinct,  both  in 
appearance  and  in  methods  of  growi;h  and  propagation,  from 
any  of  the  others.  Gregg,  Kansas,  Plum  Farmer,  Ohio,  and 
Cumberland  are  leading  and  typical  varieties. 

Red  Raspberries. — The  red  raspberries  are  derived  from  the 
wild  red  raspberry  of  America,  Rulms  strigosus,  and  from  the 
European  raspberry,  R.  Idaeus,  all  the  important  commercial 
varieties  coming  from  the  former.  Cuthbert,  King,  Perfection, 
Antwerp,  California,  Surprise,  Herbert,  Ranere,  June,  and 
Marlboro  are  leading  varieties  of  the  American  type.  The 
Europeans  are  seldom  grown  in  this  country,  never  commercially. 

The  so-called  Purple  Cane  raspberries  are  a  very  interest- 
ing group  of  varieties  which  are  evidently  of  hybrid  origin,  hav- 
ing come  from  a  crossing  of  the  black  raspberry,  Ruhus  occiden- 


ROOT  CUTTINGS  165 

talis,  with  the  wild  red  raspberry,  11.  strigosus.  They  show 
variations  in  k^af  and  cane  characteristics  and  in  methods  of 
propagation  all  the  way  from  one  of  these  species  to  the  other. 
They  have  been  placed  in  a  gronp  by  themselves,  botanically, 
with  the  designation  of  Ruhus  negledus.  Columbian,  Schaffer's 
Colossal,  and  Koyal  Purple  are  leading  varieties,  the  first  being 
the  most  popular. 

Propagation  of  Blackberries  and  Raspberries. — Turning 
now  to  the  question  of  propagation  we  find  that  three  entirely 
distinct  and  very  interesting  types  of  multiplication  are  in  use 
in  this  gi-oup  of  fruits. 

Suckers. — First,  in  the  case  of  blackberries  and  red  rasp- 
berries, we  have  the  sucker  method.  It  is  the  habit  of  these 
fruits,  besides  sending  up  the  new  canes  from  the  crown  of  the 
plant,  also  to  send  up  suckers  or  shoots  some  little  distance 
away  from  the  crown.  These  are  connected  with  the  parent 
plant  by  a  strong  undergTound  stem  which  sends  out  more  or 
less  roots  along  its  entire  length.  In  this  method  of  propaga- 
tion the  young  sucker  is  severed  from  the  parent  plant  with  as 
many  roots  attached  to  it  as  can  be  secured,  and  is  transferred 
direct  to  the  new  plantation,  or  may  be  grown  for  a  year  in  the 
nursery  row  before  setting  permanently.  This  is  an  excellent 
way  to  get  new  plants  for  the  home  garden,  either  from  plants 
already  set  on  the  premises  or  from  nearby  neighbors.  There 
is  only  one  objeetion  to  it  and  that  is  purely  a  matter  of  preju- 
dice. Since  the  suckers  from  these  two  berries  are  usually  the 
worst  weeds  with  which  the  owner  has  to  contend  in  his  cultiva- 
tion of  the  patch,  many  people  have  the  notion  that  this  ten- 
dency to  sucker  is  intensified  if  the  plants  are  propagated  by 
the  sucker  methods,  and  are  so  strongly  prejudiced  against  plants 
so  grown  that  they  will  not  take  them  if  they  can  get  any 
others.  There  is  really  no  more  danger  of  increasing  this  sucker- 
ing  tendency  through  propagating  by  suckers  than  there  is  of 
growing  sheep  without  tails  through  the  method  of  docking,  but, 
of  course,  it  is  impossible  to  convince  some  people  of  this. 

Root  Cuttings. — A  second  method  which  is  used  more  or  less 
with  all  the  brambles,  though  more  particularly  with  the  two 


166  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY  PLANTATIONS 

just  mentioned,  is  by  root  cuttings.  In  this  method  roots  of  the 
desired  variety  are  taken  in  the  autumn  and  cut  into  short 
lengths,  usually  two  and  a  half  to  three  inches.  Roots  of  the 
size  of  a  lead  pencil  are  preferred,  though  somewhat  larger  or 
smaller  ones  may  be  used.  These  cuttings  are  tied  in  bunches 
and  stored  in  moist  sand  in  a  cool  cellar  where  they  will  not 
freeze.  While  the  cuttings  have  no  buds  on  them  when  made, 
they  develop  adventitious  buds  during  the  winter,  so  that  when 
planted  out  in  the  spring  each  cutting  will  usually  have  from 
one  to  three  or  even  more  of  these  buds.  The  cuttings  should 
be  planted  in  early  spring  in  a  shallow  furrow  two  or  three  inches 
deep  and  grown  here  till  the  following  autumn  or  spring  when 
they  will  be  ready  to  set  and  will  usually  have  better  roots  than 
the  sucker  plants.  The  principal  objection  to  the  method  is 
that  in  order  to  secure  any  great  number  of  plants  it  is  neces- 
sary to  dig  up  and  destroy  the  old  plantation,  and  one  may  not 
care  to  do  this.  If  the  method  is  to  be  used  systematically  it  is 
necessary  to  plan  ahead  for  it  and  have  plantations  coming  along 
which  can  be  dismantled  for  the  purpose. 

Tip  Layering. — The  third  method  of  propagation  is  found 
among  Loganberries,  dewberries,  the  black  raspberries,  and 
some  of  the  purple  canes.  It  consists  in  rooting  the  tips  of  the 
growing  canes  which  are  then  transferred  to  the  new  planta- 
tion. Many  of  the  tips  will  root  without  any  assistance  if  the 
soil  conditions  are  good,  but  the  percentage  can  be  greatly  in- 
creased by  either  burying  the  tip  or  merely  putting  a  small 
stone  or  a  clod  of  earth  upon  it  to  hold  it  in  place  while  the 
rooting  process  is  going  on  (Fig.  81 ). 

The  Plantation. — In  laying  off  the  plantation  the  first  ques- 
tion to  be  decided  is  the  matter  of  distances  between  plants,  and 
on  this  point  there  is  rather  a  wide  variation  of  opinions  and 
practices.  To  begin  with,  it  depends  on  the  method  of  planting 
to  be  adopted,  viz.^  whether  the  plants  are  to  be  gTOwn  in  hills, 
so  that  the  plantation  may  be  cultivated  in  both  directions ;  and 
if  not,  whether,  only  the  plants  originally  set  will  be  allowed  to 
grow  and  bear  fruit,  giving  us  what  is  sometimes  known  as  the 
"linear"  system,  or  whether  additional  sucker  plants  will  be 


HILL  SYSTEM 


167 


allowed  to  develop  in  the  row,  making  it  much  thicker  thau 
originally  set,  and  forming  what  is  known  as  the  "  hedge  "  sys- 
tem. Besides  the  differences  in  distances  dependent  on  the 
system  useil,  there  are  also  considerable  variations  due  to  the 
type  of  plant,  whether  blackberry,  red  raspberry,  or  black  rasp- 


FlG.   8i.— Black  raspberry  plant  after  growth  has  started,  showing  part  of  the  old  parent 
cane  at  the  left  and  the  two  new  canes  starting  from  the  crown  at  the  right. 

berry;  and  occasionally  differences  are  made  due  to  the  variety, 
a  strong-growing  one  requiring  more  room  than  a  weaker  one. 

With  all  these  factors  bearing  on  the  question  it  will  be 
seen  that  no  very  exact  distances  can  be  given,  but  the  followinff 
are  some  of  the  ones  in  common  use : 

For  the  hill  system,  five  by  five  feet  is  the  most  common  dis- 
tance. Hills  are  seldom  grown  closer  together  than  this  even 
for  the  smaller-growing  raspberries,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  this 


168  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY  PLANTATIONS 

distance  is  often  used  for  fairly  strong-growing  raspberries  and 
even  for  blackberries.  From  this  minimum  distance  we  find  the 
space  allowed  per  hill  gradually  increased  in  different  sections, 
and  with  stronger  growing  varieties,  until  we  reach  seven  or 
eight  feet  each  way  for  hills  in  many  sections  where  the  growth 
is  strong  and  the  need  is  recognized  of  an  abundance  of  room  for 
the  best  development  of  the  plants  and  the  most  convenient 
handling  of  them.     In  particular  it  is  imperative  to  adopt  this 


Fig.  82. — A  young  block  of  red  raspberries  set  by  the  hill  system  and  started  for  the  stake 
method  of  training,  after  cultivation  has  stopped. 

maximum  distance  if  two-horse  implements  are  to  be  used  in  cul- 
tivation as  is  the  practice  in  some  sections. 

The  two  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  the  hill  system  (Fig. 
82)  are  that  cross-cultivation  can  be  practiced,  thus  reducing 
the  expense  of  keeping  the  plantation  in  good  condition,  and 
that  the  picking  of  the  fruit  is  made  very  decidedly  easier. 

Linear  and  Hedge  Systems. — With  either  the  linear  or  hedge 
systems,  the  distance  between  the  rows  will  vary  from  six  feet 
with  the  red  raspberries  or  occasionally  with  the  black-caps 
where  the  growth  is  not  veiy  strong,  up  to  eight  feet  where  the 
need  of  more  room  is  recognized.  In  the  writer's  opinion,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  pays  to  put  them  closer  than  seven  feet. 


DISADVANTAGES  OF  CROWDING  169 

The  extra  cost  of  the  additional  space  will  be  more  than  made  up 
bj  better  gro\vth  and  ease  in  working  the  plantation. 

The  distance  apart  for  the  plants  with  these  two  systems, 
the  linear  and  the  hedge,  will  vary  from  two  feet  as  a  minimum, 
and  this  distance  used  with  the  red  raspberries  and  a  few  of  the 
more  upright  of  the  purple  canes,  to  five  or  even  six  feet  where 
the  greatest  amount  of  room  is  desired.  Probably  three  feet 
would  be  the  distance  most  commonly  used. 

The  choice  of  distances  must  depend  on  a  number  of  things, 
particularly  the  following: 

1.  Kind  of  soil,  whether  mellow  and  fertile,  so  that  a  strong 
gro\\i;h  will  result,  or  rather  poor,  so  that  the  growth  will 
be  moderate. 

2.  The  class  of  fruit  (blackberry  or  raspberry),  and  the 
variety,  whether  a  strong  or  a  weak  grower. 

3.  The  climate,  particularly  w^hether  the  air  is  moist,  so  as 
to  encourage  diseases,  or  dry,  so  that  they  are  held  in  check. 

4.  The  kind  of  culture  to  be  employed,  whether  by  hand  or 
by  horse  labor,  and  if  the  latter,  whether  single  or  double  teams 
and  implements  are  to  be  used. 

Disadvantages  of  Crowding. — But  in  any  case,  as  already 
suggested,  extra  space  is  very  desirable  and  ought  to  be  carefully 
considered  by  the  prospective  planter.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  most  important  disadvantages  which  are  likely  to  result 
from  crowding: 

1.  There  is  more  trouble  from  diseases  due  to  lack  of  light 
and  poorer  air  drainage. 

2.  The  canes  make  a  weaker  and  less  satisfactory  growth 
and  consequently  the  yield  is  less. 

3.  There  is  considerable  increase  in  the  cost  of  establishing 
the  plantation,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  plants  and  trellis, 
without  a  corresponding  increase  in  yields. 

4.  The  training  of  the  plants  cannot  be  done  as  easily 
nor  as  wtII. 

5.  Tillage  operations  are  much  more  difficult,  and  the  final 
result  is  not  as  satisfactory  even  after  more  time  and  expense 
have  been  put  on  the  job. 


170  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY  PLANTATIONS 

G.  Picking  operations  are  more  difficult.  The  pickers  get 
about  less  easily  and  the  picking  is  not  likely  to  be  done 
as  thoroughly. 

7.  The  crowding  of  the  canes  provides  ideal  places  for  the 
increase  of  insect  pests. 

8.  Not  only  are  yields  smaller,  but  the  individual  fruits  are 
smaller  and  consequently  do  not  command  as  good  a  price. 

Marking  Off. — Having  settled  on  the  distances  for  the  rows 
and  the  plants  in  the  rows,  the  plantation  is  next  marked  off  for 
setting.  Several  types  of  markers  are  in  use,  but  probably  the 
one  shown  in  figure  38  is  as  good  as  any.  In  some  sections  a 
horse-drawn  marker  is  used,  of  the  type  common  in  corn  plant- 
ing. In  the  hill  system  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  mark  both 
ways ;  and  even  in  the  other  two  it  has  distinct  advantages,  one 
of  them  being  that  for  the  first  season,  at  least,  it  is  possible  to 
cultivate  in  both  directions,  and  another  that  the  plants  are 
spaced  more  evenly. 

The  best  time  for  setting  these  frviits  is,  all  things  consid- 
ered, in  the  very  early  spring.  Next  to  this  would  come  the 
late  autumn,  after  growth  had  entirely  ceased.  If  the  former 
time  is  to  be  chosen  the  land  ought  to  be  plowed  in  the  autumn 
if  possible,  so  that  it  may  be  fitted  just  as  quickly  as  may  be 
after  the.  season  opens  in  the  spring.  If  fall  planting  is  selected 
then  work  should  be  deferred  as  late  as  possible  and  still  get  the 
plantation  set  before  the  ground  freezes.  Occasionally  one  finds 
a  gi'ower  who  sets  out  his  plantation  during  September  with  the 
idea  that  the  plants  will  make  some  growth  and  become  estab- 
lished before  cold  weather.  Some  very  satisfactory  results  have 
been  secured  by  this  method,  but  the  later  autumn  date  is  more 
common.  Plants  set  in  the  autumn  will  come  through  in  much 
better  shape  if  they  can  be  given  some  slight  protection  such  as 
a  thin  layer  of  straw  or  strawy  manure. 

Pruning  Back. — Before  the  plants  are  set,  or  immediately 
thereafter,  they  should  be  primed  back  to  six  inches  or  less  of 
the  old  cane  (Fig.  83).  Since  this  cane  is  of  no  particular  value 
except  to  mark  the  spot  where  the  plant  is  set,  and  since  it  may 
even  be  a  detriment  to  the  plant  if  left  so  long  that  it  sends  out 


SETTING  PLANTS 


171 


fruiting  shoots,  and  thereby  exhausts  the  strength  of  the  plant, 
it  is  best  to  cut  it  back  more  rather  than  less,  and  many  growers 
make  a  practice  of  cutting  it  oil'  altogether. 

Setting  Plants. — Various  methods  are  in  vogue  for  setting 
of  the  plants,  but  the  following  three  are  perhaps  as  com- 
mon as  any : 

1.  The  field  is  laid  off  one  way  with  a  marker,  establishing 
the  distances  for  the  plants  in    ^ 

the  rows.  Then  the  rows  are 
laid  off  by  running  furrows 
with  a  plow  and  plants  are  set 
at  the  intersections  of  the 
furrow  and  the  cross  marks, 
using  a  spade  or  shovel  for 
whatever  additional  digging 
may  be  required. 

2.  A  second  method  is  to 
mark  the  field  both  ways  and 
then  dig  the  holes  with  a 
round-pointed  shovel  and  set 
the  plants  as  one  would  set 
apple  trees. 

3.  A  third  method  is  to 
mark  both  ways  and  then  set 
with  a  spade,  inserting  the 
spade  at  the  point  where  the 
plant  is  to  stand,  then  push- 
ing it  forward  to  open  up  a 
hole,  inserting  the  plant  be- 
hind the  spade,  withdrawing 
the  spade  and  tramping  the  soil  about  the  plant.  In  any  case, 
the  soil  should  be  firmly  pressed  about  the  plants. 

Each  of  the  above  methods  (and  many  modifications  of  them) 
has  its  advocates,  and  all  of  them  will  give  good  results. 

In  the  first  and  second  methods  the  plants  are  dropped  ahead 
of  the  setters,  but  not  far  enough  ahead  so  that  there  is  danger 
of  their  drving  out. 


Fig.  83.- — Rooted  tip  of  a  black  raspberry 
in  good  condition  for  planting  out.  Plenty  of 
fibrous  roots.  The  old  cane  should  be  cut  back 
somewhat  at  setting. 


172  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY  PLANTATIONS 

In  all  cases  the  plants  should  be  set  somewhat  deeper  than 
they  were  before  taking  np.  The  black  raspberries  and  the 
purple  canes  are  set  the  shallow^est,  usually  not  over  an  inch 
deeper  than  before,  while  the  red  raspberries  and  the  black- 
berries are  often  set  as  much  as  six  inches  deeper, 

QUESTIONS 

1.  From  what  wild  species  are  our  cultivated  blackberries  derived? 

2.  Our  cultivated  dewberries? 

3.  From  what  species  do  cultivated  red  raspberries  come? 

4.  What  are  the  purple  cane  raspberries? 

5.  Describe  the  propagation  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  by  suckers. 
0.  Do  you  know  of  other  plants  that  are  propagated  in  this  way? 

7.  Describe  the  propagation  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  by  root  cuttings. 

8.  How  can  you  tell  whether  any  plant  will  propagate  by  root  cuttings? 

9.  Describe  the  method  of  propagation  used  with  black  raspberries. 

10.  What  are  the  best  distances  for  setting  blackberries?     For  raspberries? 

11.  Discuss  the  hill  system. 

12.  What  are  the  disadvantages  of  crowding  the  plants  in  a  raspberry  or 

blackberry  plantation  ? 

13.  How  would  you  mark  off  the  plantation? 

14.  What  is  the  best  time  for  setting  raspberries  and  blackberries? 

15.  How  would  you  prune  raspl)erry  and  blackberry  plants  at  setting? 

16.  Describe  the  setting  of  the  plantation  of  brambles. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

CULTURE  AND  FERTILIZING  OF  RASPBERRIES  AND 
BLACKBERRIES 

After  the  plantation  is  once  established  its  future  care  ma}' 
be  grouped  under  about  seven  heads,  as  follows : 

1.  Plowing.  5.   Intercrops. 

2.  Cultivating.  G.   Fertilizing. 

3.  Hoeing.  7.  Pnming. 

4.  Cover  crops. 

A  separate  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  prun- 
ing. We  may  now  turn  to  a  discussion  of  the  other  six  in  the 
order  mentioned. 

1.  Plowing. — This  ought  to  be  done  either  in  the  late  fall 
or  the  verv  early  spring.  If  done  in  the  autumn  the  furrows 
should  be  turned  towards  the  rows,  since  this  protects  the  plants 
better  from  winter  injury  by  covering  the  base  of  them  with  a 
layer  of  friable  soil  which  acts  more  or  less  as  a  mulch.  If  the 
plowing  is  done  in  the  spring  the  furrows  may  be  thrown  either 
towards  or  away  from  the  rows.  There  are  advantages  from 
either  method.  The  plowing  towards  the  rows  will  better  cover 
in  and  smother  any  weeds*  that  may  be  growing  among  the  canes 
and  it  makes  a  little  more  finished  job.  Plowing  away  from  the 
rows  is  somewhat  better  in  limiting  the  width  of  the  row  (which 
is  an  important  function  of  plowing),  and  if  heavy  hoes  are 
used  soon  after,  the  strip  left  unplowed  can  be  brought  into 
good  condition.  Probably  an  alternation  is  best,  one  year  to- 
ward the  rows  and  the  next  away  from  them.  Where  plowing  is 
done  in  the  spring  it  should  be  just  as  early  as  the  soil  will 
work  well,  principally  because  later  plowing  allows  the  weeds 
to  get  a  start.  Moreover,  if  it  is  deferred  until  growth  has 
started  somewhat  it  cuts  off  and  destroys  a  lot  of  the  new  feed- 
ing roots  which  have  just  started,  thus  compelling  the  plant  to 
do  this  work  all  over  again;  and  lastly  in  later  plowing  the  team 

173 


174        CULTURE  OF  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

and  plow  are  likely  to  nib  olf  a  lot  of  the  young  shoots  which  are 
just  starting  out  on  the  canes. 

The  plow  should  be  run  at  a  medium  depth.  Too  deep  will 
cut  the  roots  umiecessarily,  thus  aggravating  the  tendency  of 
the  plants  to  throw  up  suckers  (a  tendency  which  is  pronounced 
enough  at  best),  while  too  shallow  plowing  does  not  cover  well 
enough  the  material  which  may  be  on  the  surface  of  the  soil 
(last  year's  cover  crop  and  weeds)  and  does  not  prepare  a  suffi- 
ciently deep  reservoir  for  soil  moisture.  The  ideal  depth  is  prob- 
ably four  or  five  inches. 

2.  Cultivation. — This  should  be  thorough,  but  as  shallow  as 
may  be  and  still  keep  the  weeds  and  suckers  down.  It  is 
peculiarly  important  that  this  should  start  early  in  the  season 
in  order  to  keep  ahead  of  the  grass,  suckers  and  weeds  in  the 
rows.  If  they  once  get  a  good  start  it  adds  tremendously  to  the 
cost  of  getting  the  plantation  into  good  shape  again,  more  so 
than  with  many  fruits,  because  there  are  so  many  canes  to 
interfere  with  the  work. 

After  the  plowing  has  been  finished,  as  shown  in  figiire  84, 
the  grape-hoe,  or  a  heavy-toothed  cultivator,  such  as  is  shown  in 
figTire  9,  may  be  run  along  close  to  the  rows  to  work  up  the 
remaining  soil  not  turned  over  by  the  plow. 

For  the  later  cultivations  this  same  type  of  cultivator  will 
have  to  be  used  for  the  most  part  on  account  of  the  suckers. 
Frequently  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  have  some  special 
shovels  or  teeth  with  square  ends  for  use  in  these  plantations. 
These  can  replace  the  ordinary  sharp-pointed  shovels  and  will 
cut  off  nearly  all  of  the  suckers,  as  well  as  weeds,  while  the  ordi- 
nary type  will  dodge  a  good  many  of  them.  If  a  time  comes  in 
the  season  when  the  plantation  is  clean  enough  so  that  the  lighter, 
spike-toothed  cultivator  (Fig.  10)  may  be  substituted  for  the 
heavy  one  this  ought  always  be  done,  for  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  less  the  roots  can  be  cut  the  fewer  suckers  there 
will  be,  and,  of  course,  the  latter  type  of  cultivator  will  cut  very- 
few  roots  which  are  large  enough  to  start  suckers. 

Cultivation  ought  to  be  especially  thorough  as  the  fruit  nears 
the  ripening  stage,  for  then  it  is  particularly  desirable  to  keep 


HOEING 


175 


up  the  moisture  supply.  Wbem  picking  starts  it  is  often  cus- 
tomary to  run  the  small-toothed  cultivator  through  the  planta- 
tion after  every  picking  to  loosen  up  the  soil  which  the  pickers 
have  trampled  down.  The  objection  to  this  is  that  it  makes  it 
unpleasant  for  the  pickers  to  get  about  the  plantation,  but  this 
will  be  more  than  olfset  (from  the  standpoint  of  the  owner,  at 
least)  by  the  moisture  saved  at  a  critical  time. 

There  is  no  crop  raised  where  thorough  tillage  is  more  im- 


FlG.  84. — Young  raspberry  patch  after  plowing  in  the  spring.  The  furrows  have  been  plowed 
away  from  the  rows. 

portaut  than  with  raspberries  and  blackberries.  A  compara- 
tively long-term  crop,  they  render  thorough  preparation  of  the 
soil  difficult ;  and  then,  ripening  as  they  do  in  the  very  hottest 
and  driest  weather  of  the  season,  they  call  for  the  largest  amount 
of  water  when  this  is  most  difficult  to  supply.  More  crops  of 
these  fruits  are  damaged  by  poor  tillage  than  by  all  insects 
and  diseases  combined.  Once  a  week  over  the  plantation  is 
none  too  often ! 

3.   Hoeing. — With  thorough  and  timely  cultivation  hoeing 
may  be  reduced  very  decidedly,  but  it  will  always  be  necessary 


176       CULTURE  OF  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

to  do  a  certain  amount  of  it  if  the  plantation  is  to  be  kept  in  the 
best  condition.  Even  where  cross-cultivation  is  practiced  there 
are  sure  to  be  more  or  less  weeds  in  the  hills.  It  is  especially 
desirable  to  give  one  thorough  hoeing  early  in  the  spring,  shortly 
after  the  plowing  and  fitting  of  the  land  have  been  done.  For 
this  purpose  rather  heavy  hoes  ought  to  be  used,  and  some 
growers  even  use  a  light  grubbing  hoe  or  mattock.  An  especial 
effort  ought  to  be  made  at  this  time  to  clean  out  all  grass  and 
weeds  among  the  canes  or  in  the  center  of  the  hills.  This  may 
mean  some  hand  pulling,  but  is  a  vital  point  if  the  plantation  is 
to  yield  its  best,  and  particularly  if  it  is  to  be  kept  in  the  best 
condition,  or  even  in  reasonably  good  condition,  for  future  years. 

4.  Cover-crops. — The  three  most  important  points  in  a 
cover-crop  for  plantations  of  these  fruits  are:  First,  it  shall 
start  quickly,  since  cultivation  is  usually  prolonged  rather  late 
in  these  plantations  and  the  time  available  for  growth  is  there- 
fore short ;  second,  it  shall  not  be  injured  by  frost,  for  the  same 
reason,  viz.,  that  little  time  will  usually  elapse  between  the  date 
of  sowing  the  cover-crop  and  the  date  of  the  first  frost ;  and 
third,  it  shall  be  a  large-growing  crop,  because  humus  produc- 
tion is  the  most  important  function  of  cover-crops  in  raspberry 
and  blackberry  plantations.  For  most  sections  few  crops  will 
be  found  better  than  barley.  Oats  are  often  recommended  and 
are  all  right,  but  do  not,  as  a  rule,  leave  the  soil  in  quite  such 
good  condition.  About  two  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  of  either 
should  be  sown.  If  frosts  are  likely  to  hold  off  long  enough  to 
admit  of  a  reasonable  growing  season  after  sowing  the  crop,  then 
buckwheat  may  be  admirable;  while  vetch,  cowpeas,  and  soy- 
beans are  used  in  some  sections ;  and  lastly,  a  good  crop  of 
large-gi-owing  weeds  is  excellent  (Fig,  85). 

5.  Intercrops. — The  use  of  these  crops  in  plantations  of 
raspberries  and  blackberries  is  usually  restricted  to  the  first 
year  or  at  most  to  the  first  two  years  of  the  plantation,  de- 
pending principally  on  the  distance  apart  of  the  rows,  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  plants  develop  and  occupy  the  land. 
After  two  years  what  space  there  may  be  between  the  rows  is 
usually  best  devoted  to  the  berries. 


BARNYARD  MANURE 


177 


The  principal  points  to  observe,. in  the  choice  of  intercrops 
are,  first,  to  select  crops  that  will  do  well  on  the  type  of  soil  in 
the  plantation,  and  second,  to  choose  those  which  will  not  over- 
crowd the  berry  phmts.  Cabbages  and  potatoes  are  two  excel- 
lent crops  for  this  pnrpose. 

G.  Fertilizers. — The  use  of  fertilizers  on  plantations  of  any 
of  the  frnits  is  always  a  disputed  question.  Some  growers  have 
great  faith  in  them  and  use  them  in  large  amounts  ;  others  do  not 


Fig.  8s. — Block  of  red  raspberries  two  years  old.     Stake  method  of  training,  with  a  cover 
crop  of  weeds. 

use  them  at  all ;  while  still  others,  and  these  are  the  large  ma- 
jority of  our  growers,  use  them  in  moderate  quantities. 

The  practice  with  the  fruits  under  discussion  is  just  as 
badly  mixed  as  any  of  the  others  and  perhaps  more  so,  but,  as  a 
rule,  and  a  fairly  general  one,  fertilizers  are  used. 

Barnyard  manure  is  the  most  generally  popular  form  of  fer- 
tilizer, and  naturally  so,  since  it  carries  such  a  large  amount  of 
humus,  the  value  of  which  with  these  fruits  has  been  repeatedly 
urged.  From  eight  to  ten  cords  per  acre  is  the  common  rate  of 
application,  though  occasionally  as  much  as  twenty  cords  are 
used.  The  principal  objection  to  using  it  too  freely  is  that  while 
12 


178       CULTURE  OF  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

there  is  no  dauger  of  overdoing  it  from  the  hnnms  standpoint, 
yet  it  is  also  strong  in  nitrogen,  and  too  much  of  this  will  cause 
these  fruits  to  run  to  canes  and  leaves  at  the  expense  of  fruit,  and 
sometimes  to  winter-kill  badly.  Unless  the  field  is  very  uniform 
as  to  soil  the  application  of  manure  may  well  be  varied  in  differ- 
ent parts,  putting  more  on  the  drier  and  less  fertile  sections, 
and  less  on  those  parts  which  are  naturally  better.  When  large- 
growing  cover-crops  are  being  successfully  grown  in  the  plan- 
tation, and  particularly  if  the  nitrogenous  ones  as  vetches  or 


Fig.  86. — Hens  and  raspberries  combine  well  if  there  are  not  tod  many  of  the  former. 
The  weeds  are  kept  down  and  much  valuable  fertilizing  material  is  furnished  to  theplantation. 

soybeans  are  used,  the  amount  of  barnyard  manure  used  may  be 
materially  reduced  (Fig.  86). 

The  barnyard  manure  may  be  applied  at  any  time  from  late 
autumn  till  early  spring.  Labor  supply  and  general  convenience 
of  the  farm  equipment  are  apt  to  decide  this,  but,  of  course,  it 
should  not  be  applied  while  the  plants  are  still  active  in  the 
autumn,  nor  should  it  be  used  in  the  late  spring,  else  its  slow 
availability  may  lead  to  late  growth  the  following  autumn. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. — In  addition  to  barnyard  manure 
some  commercial  fertilizers  are  usually  used  (Fig.  87).  These 
will  vary  greatly  with  the  locality,  the  owner,  and  the  season. 


HOME-MIXED  FERTILIZERS 


179 


All  of  the  kinds  of  fertilizers  discussed  in  Chapter  III  will  be 
found  in  use  and  frequently  many  others. 

If  a  ready-mixed  fertilizer  is  to  be  bought,  one  carrying 
about  three  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  seven  or  eight  per  cent,  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  nine  or  ten  per  cent,  of  potash  will  gen- 
erally be  found  satisfactory,  if  applied  at  the  rate  of  500  to 
800  pounds  per  acre. 

Home-mixed  Fertilizers. — In  most  cases,  however,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  buy  the  materials  and  mix  them  at  home,  and  for 


Fig.  87. — Commercial  fertilizers  used  on  blackberries  at  Puyallup,  Washington. 

this  purpose  nitrate  of  soda  and  tankage  are  the  common  forms 
of  nitrogen  used ;  acid  phosphate,  bone  meal  and  slag  for  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  either  the  muriate  or  the  sulfate  of  potash. 
Experiments  at  the  Massachusetts  Station  have  seemed  to  show 
that  there  is,  under  their  conditions,  considerably  less  winter 
killing  of  the  canes  with  the  sulfate  than  with  the  muriate  of 
potash.  The  time  of  application  of  these  commercial  fertilizers 
is  not  a  vital  matter  except  in  the  case  of  the  nitrogen  which 
ought  to  go  on  very  shortly  after  gTowth  starts  in  the  spring.  If 
applied  too  early  there  may  be  loss  of  material  through  drainage 
water,  and  if  too  late  the  growth  of  canes  may  be  prolonged  too 
late  in  the  season  and  cause  winter  injury. 


180       CULTURE  OF  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

The  following  are  some  fertilizer  formulas  that  are  used  by 
successful  raspberry  and  blackberry  growers,  the  amounts  being 
per  acre : 

Formula  No.  1  : 

100  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda 
200  lbs.  tankage 
200  lbs.  acid  phosphate 
200  lbs.  sulfate   of  potash 

Formula  No.  2  : 

5  tons  barn  manure 

400  lbs.  acid  phosphate 

300  lbs.  high  grade  sulfate  of  potash 

Formula.  No.  3: 

100  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda 
300  lbs.  acid  phosphate 
200  lbs.  high  grade  sulfate  of  potash 

If  barnyard  manure  is  being  used,  then  all  other  nitrogen 
may  be  cut  out  and  the  other  two  elements  considerably  reduced, 
probably  cut  in  half. 

Whatever  materials  may  be  used  for  fertilizing  a  good  deal 
of  common  sense  ought  to  be  used  with  them.  One  needs  judg- 
ment not  only  as  to  materials  to  be  included  in  the  formula, 
but  also  as  to  amounts  to  be  applied  to  different  parts  of 
the  plantation. 

Home  Experiments  with  Fertilizers. — Probably  in  the  long 
run  the  most  sensible  thing  to  do  is  to  experiment  a  little  at 
home  and  watch  results.  Certainly  this  is  best  if  one  is  to  stay 
in  the  business  for  any  length  of  time  and  if  the  soil  is  sufficiently 
uniform  so  that  results  secured  on  one  block  may  be  considered 
applicable  to  another  block. 

The  following  plan  of  experiments  is  merely  suggestive  and 
other  combinations  might  be  used  to  advantage.  Select  a  field 
with  as  uniform  a  soil  as  possible  and  one  which  is  typical  of 
the  farm.  Apply  fertilizers  as  follows:  (1)  10  tons  barnyard 
manure  per  acre,  (2)  5  tons  manure,  400  pounds  acid  phos- 
phate, 200  pounds  sulfate  of  potash,  (3)  check  plot,  no  fertilizer, 


QUESTIONS  181 

(4)  400  pounds  acid  phosphate  ;  (5  )  400  pounds  acid  phosphate, 
200  pounds  tankage,  100  pounds  nitrate  of  soda,  200  pounds  sul- 
fate of  potash  ;  (0  )  check  pk)t,  no  fertilizer;  (7)  200  pounds  sul- 
fate of  potash.  If  reasonably  small  plots  are  used,  say  15  by  20 
feet,  the  entire  space,  required  will  not  be  great  and  much  valu- 
able information  may  be  secured. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  plowinof  of  a  raspberry  or  blackberry  plantation. 

2.  What  cultivation  should  be  given  to  such  a  plantation? 

3.  What  precautions  would  you  take  to  keep  down  weeds  and  g'rass  along 

the  rows? 

4.  Discuss  the  cover  crop  question  as  applied  to  these  crops. 

5.  Would    you    inter-crop    a    raspberry    plantation?      If    so,    what    crops 

would  you  use? 
0.    What  fertilizers  would  you  use  on  the  blackberry  plantation? 


CHAPTER  XX 

PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  RASPBERRY 

AND  BLACKBERRY 

As  with  all  other  fruits,  the  pmiiing  and  training  of  the 
raspberry  and  blackberry  are  among  the  most  interesting  opera- 
tions connected  with  gTowing  them,  because  they  give  one  a 
chance  to  do  some  studying  and  to  exercise  some  judgment. 
Compared  with  other  fruits  these  operations  are,  however,  very 
simple,  even  more  so  than  with  the  grape,  because  the  different 
kinds  of  growths  are  so  simple  themselves  and  adhere  so  con- 
sistently to  a  few  types. 

Character  of  Growth. — (We  have,  first  of  all,  in  any  season, 
the  tall,  succulent  new  canes  coming  up  from  the  cro^vll  of  the 
plant  and  growing  anywhere  from  three  to  eight  or  ten  feet,  or 
even  more,  in  the  season.  These  canes  may  or  may  not  fonn 
side  branches  that  season,  depending  somewhat  on  the  species 
(whether  they  are  blackberries  or  some  species  of  raspberries), 
somewhat  on  the  variety,  somewhat  on  the  culture,  and  more 
than  all  on  whether  they  are  headed  back  by  the  owner  or  are 
allowed  to  grow  on  unchecked  (Fig.  88). 

In  the  course  of  this  first  season,  lateral  buds  will  be  formed, 
on  the  main  shoot  in  case  it  does  not  branch,  or  on  the  main 
shoot  and  on  the  side  branches  if  these  latter  appear.  These 
buds  are  shown  in  figures  89  to  91. 

The  following  spring  leafy  shoots  start  out  from  these  buds. 
In  the  case  of  blackberries  these  shoots  may  produce  three  or 
four  compound  leaves  and  then  terminate  in  a  dense  cluster  of 
blossoms  (Fig.  92),  usually  with  no  leaves  at  all  interspersed 
among  the  blossoms.  The  fruit  stage  is  shown  in  figure  93.  Or 
the  shoot  may  be  longer  and  produce  no  blossoms  whatever.  Oc- 
casionally, also,  a  side  bud  on  a  fruiting  shoot  will  get  a  start 
and  develop  into  a  strong  leafy  shoot. 

In  the  case  of  raspberries  the  character  of  these  second  season 
shoots  is  somewhat  different,  being  a  much  longer  growth,  witli 
182 


SYSTEM  OF  PRUNING 


183 


often  as  many  as  eight  or  ten  leaves  on  it.  In  all  three  types, 
the  reds,  the  blacks,  and  the  purple  canes,  this  shoot  is  terminated 
by  a  rather  dense  cluster  of  blossoms.  In  addition,  there  will  be 
found  in  the  reds  small  clusters  of  blossoms  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  for  some  distance  back  from  the  tip  (Fig.  94).  In  the 
blacks  there  are  very  few  of  these  secondary  blossom  clusters 
(Fig.  95)  and  sometimes  none  at  all;  while  die  purple  canes,  as 
might  be  expected  from  their  hybrid  origin,  are  intermediate, 
having  more  of  these  small  clusters  than  the  blacks  and  less 
than  the  reds  (Fig.  96). 


-Black  raspberries  headed  back  to  produce  branching  canes. 


From  the  practical  point  of  view,  however,  the  gi'owth  is 
substantially  the  same,  the  fruit  being  borne  on  the  current  sea- 
son's shoots  which  start  from  buds  on  last  year's  wood.  After 
the  fruit  has  ripened  these  old  canes  gradually  die,  so  that  by 
autumn  they  are  quite  brittle. 

To  recapitulate,  then,  the  method  of  fruit-bearing  with  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries  is  to  grow  a  strong  cane  the  first  season 
from  the  lateral  buds  of  which  are  sent  out,  the  second  season, 
short  shoots  which  bear  the  fruit. 

System  of  Pruning. — Turning  now  from  the  method  of  bear- 
ing to  the  systems  or  types  of  pi-uning,  we  find  that  this  work 
may  be  grouped  under  three  heads. 


184  PRUNING  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

r 


Fig.   89. — Types  of  blackberry  canes.     The  two  at  the  left  are  the  best,  the  one  at  extreme 
right  is  altogether  too  weak. 


Fig.  90. — Branched  blackberrv  cane.     This  will  send  out  bearinn  shoots  from  the  later.il 
branches,  but  not  from  the  main  branch. 


SYSTEM  OF  PRUNING 


185 


Fig.   gi. — Raspberry  canes  showing  types  of  development.      The  one  at  the  e.xtreme  left  is 
the  best,  the  others  being  rather  weak. 


Fig.  92. — Beanns  shout  cil  Dlackbcrry  showing  terminal  cluster  of  blossoms. 


186  PRUNING  RASPBERRIES   AND   BLACKBERRIES 


Fig.   93. — Fruiting  shoot  of  the  blackberry  shortly  after  blossoming,  showing  fruit  develop- 
ment at  end  of  shoot. 


Fig.  94. — Fruiting  branch  of  red  raspberry.    Fruit  distributed  along  nearly  entire  length  of 
shoot.     Compare  with  figures  95  and  96. 


HEADING  BACK  YOUNG  CANES 


187 


Fig.  95. — Fruiting  branch  of  the  black  raspberry  showing  distribution  of  fruit  at  end  of 
shoot.     Compare  with  figures  94  and  96. 


Fig.  96. — Fruiting  branch  of  purple-cane  raspberry,  showing  type  of  fruit  distribution  inter- 
mediate between  the  black  and  red  varieties.    See  figures  94  and  95- 

Heading  Back  Young  Canes. — The  first  season  the  young 
eane  may  be  allowed  to  continue  its  growth  unchecked  or  it  may 
be  headed  back.  The  object  of  this  heading  back,  if  it  is  prac- 
ticed, is  to  force  the  cane  to  send  out  side  shoots  instead  of  mak- 
ing one  long  central  leader  (Figs.  88,  90,  97  and  98). 


188  PRUNING  RASPBERRIES  AND   BLACKBERRIES 


Fig.  97. — A  hill  of  blackberries  before  prunins,  crown  without  any  trellis.     Compare  with 
figure  98. 


Fig.   98.- — Same  hill  of  blackberries  as  shown  in  fpure  97,  after  pruning. 


WHEN  TO  HEAD  BACK  YOUNG  CANES  189 

In  blackberries  and  blackcap  raspberries,  the  young  canes 
are  nsnally  headed  back  in  this  way,  while  in  red  raspberries 
they  are  usually  allowed  to  gi-ow  unchecked.  The  reason  for 
this  difference  in  practice  is  this.  If  red  raspberries  are  headed 
in  this  first  season,  the  tendency  is  for  the  canes  to  send  out 
rather  weak  side  branches  and  at  the  same  time  a  lot  of  small 
weak  canes  that  would  not  otherwise  have  started  are  forced 
out  from  the  crown  of  the  plant.  The  net  result  is  that  instead 
of  having  one  strong,  well-ripened  cane,  with  vigorous  side  buds 
on  it,  we  get  rather  Aveak  side  shoots  and  new  and  weak  canes, 
all  carrying  weak  buds  for  next  year's  fruiting  wood.  It  will 
be  found,  then,  that  with  most  successful  growers,  whether  com- 
mercial or  amateur,  the  custom  is  to  let  red  raspberry  canes 
alone  this  first  season.  The  jirincipal  exception  would  be  in  the 
case  of  very  vigorous  varieties,  as  Herbert,  which  are  sometimes 
headed  in.  Being  vigorous  they  make  a  strong  gi-owth  of  lateral 
branches  which  mature  good  strong  buds  for  the  next  season's 
fruiting  wood. 

With  blackberries  and  black  raspberries,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  effect  of  heading  back  is  different.  They  are  usually  more 
vigorous  in  gro\vth,  and  at  all  events  respond  differently  to  the 
stimulus  of  heading  in,  making  strong  laterals,  frequently  four 
.  or  five  feet  in  length,  and  not  tending  to  send  up  the  many  addi- 
tional weak  canes  as  the  reds  do  (Fig.  88). 

When  to  Head  Back  Young  Canes. — The  one  Imperative 
point  to  be  observed  in  this  heading  in  of  the  young  growing 
cane  is  to  do  it  at  the  right  time,  and  that  is  very  shortly  after 
the  cane  reaches  the  desired  height.  From  eighteen  inches  to 
two  feet  is  the  usual  height,  though  with  some  varieties,  par- 
ticularly in  the  "West,  this  height  is  often  increased  to  three  or 
four  feet.  The  tendency  among  growers  is  to  head  blackberries 
slightly  higher  than  black  raspberries.  If  the  desired  height  is 
eighteen  inches,  the  cane  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  grow  more 
than  two  feet  at  the  outside  before  it  is  headed  back.  When 
headed  properly  in  this  way  it  at  once  sends  out  strong  side 
shoots,  while  if  the  new  cane  is  allowed  to  make,  say,  three  or 
four  feet,  and  then  is  headed  back  to  eighteen  inches,  a  great 


190  PRUNING  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

deal  of  time  and  energy  have  been  lost  and  the  side  shoots  start 
more  slowly  and  never  make  as  satisfactory  a  growth. 

Moreover,  the  work  of  heading  back  can  be  done  much  more 
easily  and  quickly  when  only  the  soft  growing  tip  is  to  be  re- 
moved than  it  can  when  the  point  to  be  severed  has  become  more 
or  less  hard  and  woody.  The  thumb  and  finger  may  be  used 
for  this  pinching  back,  but  some  sort  of  shear  is  generally  to  be 
preferred,  one  which  is  light  and  works  easily  being  best.  It 
will  generally  be  found  best  to  go  over  the  plantation  several 
times  as  the  new  canes  reach  the  desired  height. 

Spring  Pruning. — The  second  and  principal  type  of  pruning 
is  done  before  growth  starts  the  second  spring.  It  consists  in 
taking  out  altogether  the  weak  canes  and  (in  the  case  of  black- 
berries and  black  raspberries)  in  shortening  back  the  lateral 
branches  on  the  canes  that  are  saved.  To  decide  just  how  much 
these  laterals  shall  be  shortened  calls  for  considerable  experi- 
ence and  judgment,  but  the  usual  practice  is  to  leave  them  about 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches.  Some  varieties  tend  to  bear  fruit 
on  the  side  branches  nearer  to  the  main  cane  than  others  do.  If 
the  latter  varieties  are  headed  in  very  closely  we  may  therefore 
remove  most,  or  all,  of  the  buds  which  would  produce  fruiting 
shoots  and  save  only  the  leafy  shoots.  Moreover,  since  in  head- 
ing back  these  side  shoots  w^e  are  always  regulating  the  size  of 
our  crop,  we  must,  in  order  to  do  it  intelligently,  know  how  much 
fniit  each  variety  can  profitably  bear  under  our  o^vn  particular 
conditions.  If  the  side  shoots  are  cut  back  too  much  the  crop 
may  be  unnecessarily  reduced,  and  if  they  are  left  too  long  the 
present  crop  may  be  increased  at  the  expense  of  future  crops, 
because  so  much  of  the  vigor  of  the  parent  plant  is  turned  to 
fruit  that  there  is  not  enough  left  for  the  best  growth  of  new 
canes.  On  the  average,  however,  we  shall  not  miss  it  far  if  the 
laterals  are  left  about  fifteen  inches  in  length ;  that  will  at  least 
do  for  a  trial,  and  the  operator  can  study  his  varieties  and  his 
conditions  and  judge  better  with  each  year's  experience. 

Removing  Canes  After  Harvest. — The  third  type  of  prun- 
ing is  the  removal  of  the  old  canes  after  they  have  borne  fruit. 
This  is  done  at  any  date  from  the  time  the  last  of  the  crop  is 


REMOVING  CANES  AFTER  HARVEST  191 

harvested  in  late  summer  up  to  the  annual  spring  pruning,  but 
it  is  the  most  common  practice,  and  probably  the  best,  to  take 
them  out  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  crop  is  oii'  (i^ig.  99). 

The  argTiments  in  favor  of  this  practice  are,  first,  the  canes 
are  softer  then  and  cut  much  more  easily  than  when  they  have 
become  dry  and  woody;  second,  there  are  likely  to  be  diseases 
and  insects  harbored  in  them  which  will  be  destroyed  by  their 
removal;  and  third,  when  they  are  out  of  the  way  the  young 
canes  have  more  room,  get  more  light  and  air,  and  consequently 


PT? 


Fig.  99. — Types  of  long-handled  pruning  shears  used  in  cutting  out  canes  of  raspberries  and 
blackberries. 

make  a  better  growth  and  bear  better  the  following  year.  There 
is  also  an  opportunity  to  thin  out  the  young  canes  at  the  same 
time  to  just  the  desired  number.  The  weakest  canes  are,  of 
course,  removed,  and  this  throws  all  the  vigor  of  the  plant  into 
the  few  canes  that  are  saved. 

There  are  three  arguments  in  favor  of  deferring  their  re- 
moval till  later:  First,  that  some  little  strength  probably  goes 
from  these  old  canes  back  to  the  crown  of  the  plant ;  second,  that 
it  is  frequently  not  convenient  to  get  the  necessarv  labor  then, 
while  late  in  the  autumn  or  early  the  next  spring  it  may  be  easily 
done ;  and  third,  that  they  afford  some  support  tb  the  new  canes 
during  the  following  winter,  when  they   might  otherwise  be 


192 


TRAINING  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 


broken  down  by  snow.     None  of  these  arguments  seems  very 
strong,  however,  unless  the  (jnestion  of  Uibor  may  be  serious. 

Systems  of  training  vary  from  none  at  all  to  fairly  compli- 
cated methods,  and  there  are,  of  course,  all  sorts  of  minor  varia- 
tions, but  the  following  are  the  principal  types: 


Fig.   ioo. — Stake  method  of  training  raspberries  and  blackberries,     This  has  the  advantage 
of  allowing  cross  cultivation. 


Fig.   ioi. — A  good  trellis  for  raspberries  and  blackberries — two  wires  on  cross-pieces  about 
1 8  inches  long. 

1.  No  trellis  at  all  is  used,  but  the  canes  are  topped  back  and 
forced  to  branch  and  become  strong  and  stocky,  so  that  even 
when  loaded  with  fniit  they  do  not  bend  over  enongh  to  get  the 
fruit  dirty.  This  method  is  fairly  common  with  blackberries 
and  with  black  raspberries,  especially  under  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  which  do  not  tend  to  a  very  strong  gi-owth,  but  is 
seldom  vised  with  the  red  raspberries  (Fig.  88). 

2.  Tying  the  canes  up  to  one  or  two  stakes  or  posts  for  each 


TWO  WIRES 


193 


Fig.  102. — A  modification  of  trellis  shown 
in  figure  loi.  The  bearing  canes  may  be  bent 
over  the  wires  on  one  side  and  the  young  grow- 
ing canes  kept  on  the  other  side. 


hill  (Figs.  82,  85  and  100) 
is  a  common  method  and  is 
becoming  more  popnlar  iu 
many  sections,  its  particular 
advantage  being  that  it  al- 
1  o  w  s  of  cross-cultivation, 
eliminating,  to  a  large  extent, 
hand  labor.  Where  two 
stakes  are  set,  the  fruiting 
canes  are  tied  to  one  and  the 
new  canes  to  the  other,  thus 
simplifying  very  decidedly 
the  operation  of  picking,  and 
preventing  injury  to  the  new 
canes  by  the  pickers. 

3.  Two  wires  are  run 
along  the  row,  one  on  either 
side,  to  support  the  canes  and 
keep  them  out  of  the  mud  and 
out  of  the  way  of  the  culti- 
vator (Fig.  101).  The  posts 
are  set  from  fifteen  to  tliirty 
feet  apart,  and  of  a  height  to 
suit  the  height  of  the  canes, 
generally  from  three  to  four 
and  one-half  feet  above  the 
ground.  A  cross-piece  about 
a  foot  and  a  half  long  is 
nailed  to  each  post  near  the 
top  and  a  ISTo.  10  wire  is  run 
along  each  side  and  fastened 
to  the  ends  of  the  cross-pieces. 
This,  of  course,  allows  the 
new  and  old  canes  to  inter- 
mingle. A  modification  of  the  system  is  used  in  some  sections 
by  putting  two  wires  on  each  side,  the  lower  pair  being  two  to 
two  and  one-hajf  feet  from  the  ground  and  the  upper  pair  four 
13 


Fig.  103. — A  modification  of  trellis  shown 
in  figure  loi  with  cross-pieces  along  wires. 
Hill  system  with  6  to  lo  canes  per  hill. 
Puyallup,  Wash. 


194 


TRAINING  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 


aud  a  lialf.  The  bearing  caues  are  then  bent  over  the  upper 
wire  on  one  side  and  tied  to  the  lower  wire,  while  the  new  canes 
grow  up  in  the  space  between  the  wires,  thus  separating  the  two 
types  of  canes  with  the  consequent  advantages  already  suggested 
(Figs.  102  and  103). 

4.  The  Single  Wire  Method. — A  fourth  method  is  to  run  a 
single  No.  10  wire  down  the  center  of  the  row  on  posts  from 
three  to  five  feet  high.  To  this  wire  the  canes  are  tied  (Fig. 
104).  Of  course,  this  decreases  the  expense  of  the  trellis  con- 
siderably over  the  last  method,  by  leaving  out  one  wire  and  the 
cross-pieces,  but  it  adds  the  expense  of  tying  so  that  costs  are 
not  very  different  in  the  long  run. 


Fig.   104. — Trellis  of  a  single  wire,  to  which  the  canes  are  tied  with  twine. 

In  some  sections  of  the  state  of  Washington  a  new  and  very 
satisfactory  method  of  handling  long  canes  on  a  single  wire  has 
been  developed.  It  consists  of  bending  the  canes  over  the  top 
of  the  wire  and  then  weaving  them  in  among  the  canes  of  the 
next  hill  (Figs.  105  and  100  ). 

5.  One  Wire  Above  Another. — A  modification  of  this  trellis 
consists  in  using  longer  posts,  generally  four  to  six  feet,  and  put- 
ting on  two  wires  about  two  feet  apart,  the  upper  one  at  or  near 
the  top  of  the  posts  (Fig.  107).  In  this  case  it  is  not  necessary 
to  use  so  heavy  a  wire  for  the  lower  one,  since  the  most  of  the 
strain  comes  on  the  upper  vdre.  A  l^o.  12  wire  will  usually  be 
sufficiently  strong.  The  canes  are  tied  to  both  wires,  thus  giv- 
ing them  better  support  but  also  increasing  the  cost. 

A  modification  of  the  method  of  tying  with  this  same  trellis 
is  shown  in  figures  108,  109  and  110,  where  the  canes  are  bent 


A  WASHINGTON  PLAN 


195 


over  the  upper  wire  and  brought  dowu  and  tied  to  the  lower  wire. 
G.  A  Washington  Plan. — Stahl,  of  Washington,  describes  a 
system  in  use  in  the  Puyallup  district  as  follows : 


Fig.   ios. — Modification  of  system  shown  in  figure  104.    The  canes  are  here  bent  ov 
wire  and  their  ends  woven  in  among  the  canes  of  the  next  hill. 


Fig.    106. — Curling   or  snail   method   of   training   used   by  Japanese   growers   at    Auburn. 
Washington.    It  is  a  modification  of  system  shown  in  figure  105. 

"  A  plan  of  training  very  mnch  like  the  old  French  method 
has  been  tried  by  some  growei-s  and  is  being  adopted  in  a  num- 
ber of  newly  set  fields.  The  rows  are  set  north  and  south,  eight 
feet  apart,  and  trellis  placed  about  a  foot  to  the  east  of  each 


196  TRAINING  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

row.  The  trellis  is  made  by  usiug  8-foot  posts,  ten  inches  to  a 
foot  in  diameter.  They  are  set  three  feet  in  the  ground  about 
fifty  feet  apart.  Posts  seven  feet  in  length  may  be  substituted, 
but  they  must  be  set  closer.  A  wire  is  stretched  from  post  to 
post,  three  feet  from  the  ground,  and  on  the  side  of  the  posts 
nearest  the  plants  (Fig.  111).     The  bearing  canes  are  drawn 


107. — Modification  of  trellis  in  Fig.  104.     Consists  in  using  longer  post,  generally  four 
to  six  feet  and  using  two  wires. 


Fig.    108. — Modification  of  trellis  and  training   in    figure    107.     Canes    bent    over    upper 
v.'ire  and  tied  to  lower.     See  also  figures  109  and  no. 

over  to  the  wire  and  securely  tied  with  string.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  each  post  and  ten  or  twelve  inches  higher  another  wire 
is  stretched.  The  bearing  canes  hang  over  this  wire  but  are 
not  tied  to  it.  As  the  fruit  is  developed  the  canes  gradually 
droop  until  they  rest  on  the  upper  wire.  They  are  thus  sup- 
ported and  can  be  easily  pushed  to  one  side  without  injury  as 
the  fruit  is  picked.  All  of  the  picking  is  done  from  the  east 
side  of  the  row  and  the  new  canes  are  not  disturbed.     The  new 


A  WASHINGTON   PLAN 


197 


Fig.    log. — Modification  of  system  shown  in  figure  loS,  the  ends  of  the  canes  being  woven 
in  among  the  adjoining  canes  and  not  tied. 


or  young  canes  grow  erect  and  are  lield  in  place  by  stretching  a 
temporary  wire  on  the  west  side  of  them  and  a  few  inches  below 
the  lower  wire  of  the  trellis  to  which  the  bearing  canes  are  tied. 
Stretching  of  the  temporary  vnre  may  be  done  any  time  after 
the  young  canes  are  three  or  four  feet  in  height  and  before 


198 


TRAINING  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 


harvest.  With  this  system  of  training  the  pickers  are  in  the 
shade  of  the  phmts  most  of  the  day.  Ciiltivating  is  made  no 
harder  than  with  other  systems  and  the  canes  are  given  every 
opportunity  for  development." 

7.  For  trailing  sorts,  which  produce  long  recumhent  canes,  a 
trellis  is  used  which  consists  of  a  single  post  five  feet  high  with 


Fig.   III. — Trellis  of  three  wires  which  stpir  itts  the  bearing  canes  from  the  non-beanng. 
Shown  here  after  the  bearing  canes  have  been  removed. 

two  cross-arms  (Figs.  112  and  113)  on  which  are  run  four 
wires.  The  cross-arms  are  18  inches  or  two  feet  long,  and  one 
is  nailed  at  the  top  of  the  posts  and  the  other  about  three  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  young  growing  canes  are  trained  along 
the  two  upper  wires,  while  the  two  lower  wires-  support  the 
fruiting  two-year-old  canes;  or  the  two  lots  of  canes  may  be 


'[^ 

■- 

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i. 

i.i^tC''^" 

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k  -^-fc^ 

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It 

^^     '.r.--  »>  J* 

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K^ 

^■^^^^Ipv^l 

lilffnr^B 

iTP 

1 

^^E^^^^^^H 

if^^vi^v^piR 

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B 

Fig.   112. — Trellisand  training  for  the  trailing  types  of  berries,     i'ho  bearing  canes  are  abov% 
and  the  young,  growing  canes  below. 


Fig.  113. — Another  view  of  the  same  system  shown  in  fij-.urt  ii.',  Sl^ih.  throwers 
reverse  the  arrangement  shown  here  and  put  the  young  canes  on  the  top  wires  and  the  bear- 
ing canes  below. 


200  TRAINING  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

reversed,  the  young  canes  going  below  and  the  frniting  canes 
above.  In  either  case  the  fruiting  canes  are  separated  from 
the  non-fruiting  ones,  which  is  always  an  advantage  since  the 
operation  of  picking  is  facilitated  and  the  new  canes  are  not  in- 
jured b}^  the  pickers.  Cross-pieces  of  wood  with  notches  cut  in 
their  ends  are  used  and  the  canes  are  trained  along  the  wires 
horizontally  by  weaving  theni  in  and  out  among  these  cross-pieces. 


Fig.   114. — Two  home-made  hooks  for  removing  old  canes  of  raspberries  and  blackberries. 
Any  good  blacksmith  can  make  the  blades  out  of  an  old  file. 

The  tools  required  for  pruning  raspberries  and  blackberries 
are  few  and  simple.  With  blackberries  in  particular,  but  to  a 
large  extent  with  all  these  fruits,  it  is  desirable  to  keep  as  far 
away  from  them  as  possible  on  account  of  their  thorns,  and  long- 
handled  implements  are  therefore  chosen.  Two  types  are  espe- 
cially common.  One  is  the  hook,  shown  in  figure  114,  which  is 
used  for  removing  the  old  canes  after  fruiting,  and  to  a  less 
extent  the  young  canes  which  it  is  desired  to  thin  out.  It  must 
be  kept  sharp  if  it  is  to  be  at  all  satisfactory,  otherwise  the 


QUESTIONS  201 

jerking  iiecessarj  to  cut  off  the  old  caiies  tends  to  disturb  the 
roots  of  the  phmt. 

The  other  implement  is  the  long,  two-handled  shear,  several 
types  of  which  are  shown  in  Hgure  99.  It  has  the  advantage 
over  the  hook  that  one  does  not  disturb  the  roots  any,  but  the 
work  is  apt  to  be  done  more  slowly  and  with  somewhat  more 
danger  of  scratching  to  the  operator.  For  the  shortening  in  of 
the  laterals  a  pair  of  the  ordinary  hand  shears  is  generally  used. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Descriho   tlio   jirnwfli    of   a   hearing    red    raspberry    plant,    followini,'   it 

tliroupli   1\vo  seasons. 

2.  How   would   you   prune   a   raspberry   cane   durinj^   tbe   first   season   of 

its  growtli  ? 

3.  How  would  you  prune  it  during  the  following  season? 

4.  How  should  the  canes  be  treated  after  they  have  borne? 

5.  Describe  the  stake  method  of  training  raspberries. 

6.  Describe  the  single  wire  methods. 

7.  What  methods   of   training  have  you   seen?     Which   of  these   do  you 

like  l>est? 

8.  How  are  the  trailing  varieties  of  these  fruits  trained? 

9.  What  are  the  best  tools  for  pruning  raspberries  and  blackberries? 


CHAPTER  XXI 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES  OF  THE  RASPBERRY 
AND  BLACKBERRY 

While  there  are  plenty  of  pests  for  these  fruits,  and  the 
grower  ought  constantly  to  be  on  the  watch  for  them,  and  ought 
to  plan  the  care  of  his  plantation  with  a  view  to  keeping  them 
in  check  just  as  far  as  possible  by  cultural  methods  and  general 
management,  yet,  as  with  the  strawberry,  there  are  no  pests  of 
the  "  first  magnitude,"  take  the  country  over. 

This  is  not  saying  that  in  some  localities  and  during  some 
seasons  there  may  not  be  very  serious  injury  from  the  anthrac- 
nose  or  the  crowm  borer,  but  it  is  saying  that  there  is  nothing  to 
compare  with  the  codling  moth  or  the  scab  in  apple  orchards. 

Among  insects  there  are  a  dozen  or  fifteen  that  are  likely  to 
be  more  or  less  troublesome,  but  most  of  them  are  rather  re- 
stricted in  their  range  and  not  over  four  or  five  are  worth  includ- 
ing in  this  brief  discussion. 

1.  Cane-Borers. — Probably  the  cane-borers  are  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  any  of  these  pests.  There  are  two  types, 
the  most  common  being  a  native  American  insect  about  half  an 
inch  long,  with  a  black  body  and  a  yellowish  neck  or  prothorax. 
It  is  one  of  the  many  long-horned  borers.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
by  the  females  in  the  pith  of  the  young  gi'owing  canes  about  six 
inches  from  the  tip.  At  the  same  time  she  makes  two  rows  of 
punctures  around  the  cane  about  half  an  inch  apart,  one  above, 
the  other  below,  the  spot  where  the  egg  is  deposited.  The  object  of 
these  punctures  is  supposed  to  be  to  prevent  the  eggs  from  being 
crushed  by  the  growing  tissues,  the  injury  checking  the  gro^vth 
or  stopping  it  altogether  at  the  point  where  the  egg  is  deposited. 
At  all  events  it  causes  the  tips  of  the  canes  to  wilt,  thus  giving 
notice  to  the  owner  that  the  work  is  going  on  (Fig.  115). 

Most  of  the  eggs  are  deposited  in  June,  though  a  few  of  the 
insects   are   at  work   nearly   a   month   earlier   and   later  than 
this  date. 
202 


CHOWN  BORER  203 

The  lan^a  requires  two  years  for  complete  development. 
During  the  first  seasou  it  bores  only  a  short  distance  down  the 
cane,  living  on  the  pith.  During  the  second  season  it  continues 
to  work  down  the  cane,  which  is  now  in  its  fruiting  stage,  and  it 
usually  prevents  the  fruit  from  maturing.  It  reaches  the  base 
of  the  cane  by  the  second  autumn  and  passes  the  winter  there, 
and  emerges  in  May  or  June  to  begin  the  cycle  again. 


Fig.    IIS. — Work  of  the  raspberry  cane-borer.    Note  the  two  rows  of  punctures  by  the  white 
arrows.    The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  section  between  these  two  rings  of  punctures. 

The  wilting  of  the  cane  tips  is  fairly  conspicuous,  and  the 
remedy  consists  in  cutting  out  and  destroying  these  canes  or  the 
tips  of  them  as  soon  as  they  are  discovered.  One  argument  for 
cutting  out  and  burning  the  old  canes  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  har- 
vested is  the  fact  that  by  so  doing  this  pest  is  pretty  effectually 
kept  in  check. 

2.  Crown-Borer. — This  is  the  lar\-a  of  a  clear-winged  moth, 
something  on  the  order  of  the  adult  insect  of  the  peach-borer. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  leaves  of  the  plants  in  August  and 
September,  and  on  hatching  the  little  larva  crawls  down  the 


204  INSECTS  OF  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 

stem  and  passes  the  winter  at  the  base  of  the  cane.  In  the 
spring  it  burrows  into  the  stem  and  spends  the  season  feeding 
in  the  roots  or  in  the  stem  near  the  crown  of  the  plant.  They 
pass  the  second  winter  in  their  burrows  and  the  second  summer 
continue  feeding  up  to  midsummer.  By  this  time  they  have 
attained  a  lengtli  of  nearly  an  inch  and  have  done  great  damage 
to  the  plant.  They  enter  the  pupa  stage  in  July,  and  the  adult 
emerges  in  August  or  September  and  the  eggs  are  again  deposited. 
The  presence  of  these  borers  is  indicated  by  the  sickly  ap- 
pearance and  eventually  by  the  dying  of  the  canes,  and  they  are 
combated  by  digging  out  the  larvse,  or  by  digging  out  and  de- 
stroying the  affected  plant.  Frequent  shifting  of  the  plantation 
is  also  helpful. 

3.  Raspberry  Sawfly. — This  insect  is  much  more  serious  on 
the  raspberry,  but  sometimes  attacks  the  blackberry  as  well.  The 
adult  insect  is  a  small,  dark-colored,  four-winged  fly  which  de- 
posits its  eggs  during  May  in  incisions  made  in  the  under  surface 
of  the  leaves.  The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days.  The  larvoB  are  pale 
green  in  color  and  covered  with  spiny  tubercles,  the  spines  chang- 
ing during  the  growth  of  the  larva  from  whitish  to  brownish. 
They  begin  eating  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  leaves,  but  eventu- 
ally they  eat  away  all  the  leaf  tissues  except  the  main  ribs  and 
occasionally  attack  even  the  bark  of  the  young  twigs.  When  they 
are  full  gi'own  they  are  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  at 
which  time  they  enter  the  ground  about  two  or  three  inches  and 
change  to  the  pupa  stage,  emerging  the  following  May. 

Spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  during  the  early  part  of  the 
attack  is  the  best  remedy.  If  this  is  neglected  till  the  fruit  has 
attained  some  size,  it  is  best  to  use  helebore  at  the  rate  of  one 
ounce  to  one  gallon  of  water,  on  account  of  the  danger  to  persons 
eating  the  fruit. 

4.  Red  Spiders. — These  are  not  insects,  but  very  minute 
mites,. yellowish  or  reddish  in  color,  that  feed  on  the  leaves  of 
various  plants,  including  the  raspberry.  They  are  not  generally 
troublesome  except  in  very  dry  seasons,  since  heavy  rains  tend 
to  destroy  them.  They  are  found  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves,  but  are  so  small  as  to  be  difficult  to  distinguish  without  a 


ANTHRACNOSE  205 

magnifijing  glass.  They  suck  the  juices  of  the  leaves  and  must 
therefore  be  attacked  with  coutact  spravs.  Finely-powdered 
sulfur  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  three  gallons  of  water  or 
nicotine  sulfate  at  the  rate  of  one-half  pint  to  fifty  gallons  of 
water  are  the  two  most  common  sprays.  The  work  must  be  done 
very  carefully  and  thoroughly,  as  only  those  mites  that  are  hit  by 
the  spray  will  be  destroyed. 

Anthracnose. — Among  diseases  the  anthracnosc  is  easily  the 
most  common  and  most  serious.  It  is  most  virulent  on  black 
raspberries,  next  on  blackberries,  and  least  troublesome  on  red 
raspberries.  It  attacks  both  the  canes  and  the  leaves,  but  is 
nmch  more  conspicuous  on  the  fonner,  showing  first  as  small 
brownish  or  purplish  spots  which  are  more  or  less  depressed  in 
the  center  and  raised  along  the  edges.  These  begin  to  appear  on 
the  young  growing  canes  when  they  reach  a  height  of  about 
twelve  inches.  These  spots  gradually  increase  in  size  and  often 
coalesce  forming  large  patches,  and  in  some  cases  entirely  gird- 
ling the  cane.  At  the  same  time  they  change  color,  becoming 
grayish  in  the  center  and  much  more  conspicuous.  The  leaves 
or  canes  which  are  attacked  are  small  in  size,  the  leaves  often 
with  the  edges  rolled  inward.  The  fruit  is  also  dwarfed  and 
ripens  prematurely,  or  even  dries  up  without  ripening. 

In  very  bad  attacks  the  injury  is  so  conspicuous  as  to  be 
noticed  at  once,  but  in  more  mild  attacks,  which  are  more  com- 
mon, it  may  be  present  in  a  plantation  for  several  years  before 
its  presence  is  noted. 

Remedies  for  Anthracnose. — Several  lines  of  attack  are  open 
to  the  o^^^ler. 

1.  All  the  old  canes  should  be  cut  out,  along  with  any  very 
badly  infested  young  canes,  immediately  after  the  fruit  has  been 
harvested.  These  should  be  burned  as  soon  as  they  are  dry 
enough,  which  will  require  only  a  short  time. 

2.  Spraying  has  considerable  value  in  holding  the  disease  in 
check,  but  many  authorities  doubt  whether  it  pays  for  its  cost 
by  the  exta-a  yield  secured.  If  it  is  to  be  done  the  following 
program  is  best:  First,  spray  with  a  plain  solution  of  copper 
sulfate,  one  pound  to  25  gallons  of  water,  before  the  buds  start. 


206  DISEASES  OF  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 

Second,  spraj  with  Bordeaux  mixture,  4-4-50  formula,  when 
the  young  canes  are  about  six  or  eight  inches  high.  Third,  spray 
again  with  Bordeaux  after  the  old  canes  have  been  removed. 

3.  Give  the  plants  plenty  of  room  so  that  they  may  get  the 
maximum  amount  of  light  and  air.  This  would  mean  wider 
spacing  of  the  rows  and  hills,  and  allowing  fewer  canes  per 
hill  or  per  foot  of  row. 

4.  Make  frequent  plantings  on  new  land,  shortening  up  the 
life  of  the  old  plantations  proportionately. 

5.  Be  very  careful  to  select  the  best  of  stock  which  is  free 
from  the  disease. 

G.  Give  the  plantation  the  best  of  care  in  cultivation, 
fertilizing,  etc. 

Orange  Rust. — This  is  often  a  very  serious  disease  on  black- 
berries, somewhat  less  so  on  black  raspberries,  but  is  not  usually 
very  troublesome  on  red  raspberries.  The  first  indication  of  it 
is  a  peculiar  yellowish  green  color  to  the  leaves  which  assume  an 
abnormal,  somewhat  elongated  shape.  Later  on  orange-red 
pimples  appear  on  the  under  surface,  which  finally  burst  open, 
releasing  the  spores,  which  spread  the  disease  to  other  plants. 
The  spores  germinate  on  the  surface  of  the  leaves  and  the  root- 
like mycelium  or  vegetative  part  of  the  fungus  spreads  through 
them  to  the  cane  and  eventually  to  the  parts  of  the  plant  below 
the  ground  where  it  lives  on  from  year  to  year  and  is  a  constant 
source  of  infection  for  all  future  growth  from  that  particular 
plant,  as  well  as  spreading  the  disease  to  other  plants.  The  only 
possible  remedy  for  an  infected  plant  is  to  dig  it  up  and  burn  it, 
and  this  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  trouble  is  detected. 

Cane  Blight  or  Cane  Wilt. — This  disease  attacks  both  the 
red  and  black  raspberries  about  equally.  It  is  most  noticeable 
and  does  the  most  damage  on  the  fruiting  canes,  but  may  often 
be  found  on  the  young  canes  during  their  first  season's  gro-wth. 

On  the  diseased  canes  the  bark  becomes  lighter  colored,  with 
dark,  discolored  patches  where  the  disease  breaks  out  in  the  spore 
stage.  These  areas  may  be  small  or  large;  if  large  they  may 
extend  up  and  down  the  cane,  or  may  encircle  it.  In  the  latter 
case  that  part  of  the  cane  above  this  girdle  dies  quickly,  causing 


DISEASE   MAY  BE  COMBATED  207 

the  familiar  wilting  and  drying  np  of  the  leaves  and  shoots 
(Fig.  IIG).  The  wood  is  also  discolored  and  in  time  heeomes 
very  brittle. 

This  disease  is  disseminated  largely  through  diseased  nurs- 
ery stock,  hut  may  be  carried  in  many  other  ways,  such  as  culti- 
vation, which  disseminates  it  through  moving  soil  or  detached 
branches ;  by  men  pruning  in  the  plantation ;  by  pickers  and  bv 
' ^  ■■     •"  •■ — '■"— '-"^'   " ^^ 


Fig.   ii6. — Raspberry  cane  blight  or  cane  wilt. 

rain  or  wind.  Where  there  is  a  bad  attack  it  often  causes  dam- 
age to  the  crop  as  high  as  40  to  50  per  cent. 

The  disease  appears  to  gain  entrance  to  the  canes  largely 
through  openings  in  the  bark,  such  as  pruning  wounds,  broken 
stubs  of  branches,  etc. 

The  disease  may  be  combated  in  various  ways,  the  prin- 
cipal remedy  being  to  cut  out  and  bum  affected  canes.  Of 
course,  the  sooner  this  can  be  done  after  the  cane  becomes  af- 
fected the  better,  but  the  presence  of  this  disease  in  a  plantation, 


208       DISEASES  OF  RASPBERRIES  AND  BLACKBERRIES 

or  the  danger  that  it  may  get  in,  is  an  additional  reason  for 
cutting  out  and  burning  the  fruiting  canes  as  soon  as  the  crop 
is  harvested. 

Preventive  measures  are  much  the  same  as  outlined  under 
anthracnose,  viz.,  set  only  healthy  nursery  stock,  renew  planta- 
tions frequently,  and  give  the  best  of  culture. 

Crown  Gall. — The  roots  and  crowns  of  raspberries  and  black- 
berries are  freqiiently  attacked  by  a  disease  which  produces  galls 
or  swellings  similar  to  those  sometimes  found  on  the  roots  of 
apple  trees.  It  is  more  destructive  to  raspberries  than  to  black- 
l)erries  and  is  considerably  worse  on  the  reds  than  the  blacks. 

It  is  too  frequently  spread  by  diseased  nursery  stock.  In  the 
plantation  it  is  carried  by  cultivation  and  any  other  operation 
which  moves  soil  from  one  part  of  the  block  to  another.  Plants 
affected  by  the  disease  have  a  sickly  appearance  and  whole  plan- 
tations are  frequently  killed. 

The  remedy  is  to  dig  out  and  destroy  affected  plants.  The 
best  preventive  measures  are  to  use  healthy  nursery  stock.  In- 
spect plants  carefully  before  planting.  Be  careful  not  to  set  a 
new  plantation  on  land  which  is  affected  with  the  disease.  (See 
Chapter  XIII,  Nematodes.) 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  cane-borer  of  the  raspberry.     Did  you  ever  see  the  work 

of  this  insect? 

2.  How    does   tlie   crown-borer   work?      What   would    you   do    to    control 

this  insect? 

3.  Describe  the  habits  and  control  of  the  raspberry  saw-fly. 

4.  What   are    red    spiders?      How    woukl    you    control    them    in    a    rasp- 

berry plantation? 

5.  Describe  the  anthracnose  of  raspberries  and  blackberries.     How  would 

you  control  it? 
G.  Did  you  ever  see  the  orange  rust  on  blackberries?     Describe  it,     How 
would  you  control  it? 

7.  Describe  the  cane  blight  or  cane  wilt. 

8.  What    is   the    crown    gall    like?     What    do    you    understand    by    "a 

bacterial  disease  ?  " 


CHAPTER  XXII 

HARVESTING    AND    MARKETING    THE    RASPBERRY 
AND    BLACKBERRY 

While  in  some  respects  these  berries  are  more  easily  bar- 
v^ested  and  marketed  tban  are  strawberries,  yet  in  several  ways 
they  are  more  difficult  to  handle.  They  are  thorny  and  dis- 
agreeable to  work  among,  the  weather  is  apt  to  be  hotter  and 
more  uncomfortable,  and  the  need  of  good  judgment  on  the  part 
of  the  picker  is  considerably  greater. 

HAKVESTING 

The  labor  situation  is  much  the  same  as  with  strawberries, 
with  these  additional  difficulties: 

1.  Degree  of  Maturity. — It  is  much  more  difficult  to  estab- 
lish a  standard  for  the  degree  of  ripeness  and  to  see  that  the 
pickers  live  up  to  this  standard.  All  of  these  fruits  color  some 
time  before  they  are  ripe.  Blackberries  in  particular  are  black 
some  days  before  they  have  developed  the  quality  that  they 
should  have.  Of  course,  the  desirable  or  permissible  degree  of 
ripeness  for  picking  will  depend  on  the  distance  to  market.  If 
the  f  niit  is  to  be  shipped  some  distance,  then  eating  quality  must 
be  sacrificed  to  carrying  quality,  and  this  simplifies  the  problem 
somewhat,  since  for  the  distant  market  they  may  be  picked  as 
soon  as  they  are  thoroughly  black,  a  fairly  easy  rule  to  live  up  to. 
For  the  strictly  local  market  blackberries  may  be  allowed  to  get 
fully  ripe  on  the  vines  which,  as  suggested,  adds  to  the  difficulty 
of  picking;  in  fact,  this  is  the  most  difficult  market  for  which  to 
pick  satisfactorily,  because  the  pickers  are  certain  to  pick  some 
berries  that  are  black  but  by  no  means  ripe  (Fig.  117). 

With  red  raspberries  it  is  somewhat  less  difficult  to  establish 
the  right  standard  for  ripeness,  because  the  indications  of  the 
stage  of  maturity  are  more  marked.  When  the  berries  take  on  a 
handsome  attractive  color,  losing  somewhat  their  glossy  appear- 
ance, becoming  softer,  and  separate  more  readily  from  the  re- 
14  209 


210     HARVESTING  THE  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 

ceptacle,  they  are  ready  for  picking.  If  they  are  to  go  to  dis- 
tant markets  the  stage  of  ripeness  is  less  and  for  local  markets 
more.  In  any  case,  it  ought  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  even  for 
the  most  local  of  markets  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  become 
too  ripe,  since  they  lose  quality  rapidly  after  a  certain  stage  of 


Fig.  117. — Raspberry  pickers  of  various  ages.    A  mixed  gang  like  this  will  usually  do  good 
work.     Note  type  of  carrier. 

ripeness  has  been  reached,  whether  they  remain  on  the  vines  or 
not  (Fig.  118). 

Blach  raspberries  are  even  more  easily  handled  than  reds  so 
far  as  ripeness  is  concerned,  since  one  has  more  latitude  in  the 
matter  from  the  fact  that  they  are  firmer  and  not  so  perishable. 
When  they  separate  readily  from  the  receptacle  they  are 
ready  for  picking. 

2.  Thorns. — The  second  special  difficulty  in  picking  these 
fruits  comes  from  the  fact  that  they  are  so  thorny.  Blackberries 
in  particular  are  vexatious  to  handle;  but  even  the  red  rasp- 


THORNS 


211 


Fig.    ii8. — Picking  raspberries,  Puyallup.  Washington.     Note  carrier   with  long  legs  which 
obviates  bending  by  pickers. 


Fig.  119. — Berry  pickers'  quarters,  Puyallup,  Washington.  Growers  lunii.^h  ..ulU 
quarters  for  pickers  who  stay  through  the  season.  Good  water,  clean  quarters  and  a 
sanitary  location  do  much  to  keep  pickers  happy. 

berries,  which  are  the  mildest  of  the  lot,  are  uncomfortable 
things  to  get  very  close  to.  This  means  that  ever\i;hing  possible 
should  be  done  to  make  the  plantation  convenient  for  picking. 


212     HARVESTING  THE  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 


Some  method  of  traiuiiig  is  almost  imperative,  and  the  more 
strictly  the  method  can  confine  the  canes  the  better.  If  the  bear- 
ing and  non-bearing  canes  can  be  separated  (as  is  done  in  the 

double  stake  method 
and  in  some  of  the  trel- 
lis methods)  this  will 
be  a  great  assistance. 
Restricting  the  num- 
ber of  canes,  both  bear- 
ing and  non-bearing, 
will  also  help  to  allow 
the  pickers  to  go  about 
their  work  more 
comfortably. 

3.  Hot  Weather. — 
A  third  special  difficulty 
in  handling  the  picking 
question  satisfactorily 
with  these  fruits  is  the 
fact  that  they  ripen 
d  u  r  i  ng  the  hottest 
weather,  when  the  work- 
ing conditions  for  the 
pickers  are  least  com- 
fortable. The  heat, 
combined  with  the 
thorniness  of  the  bushes, 
will  discourage  a  good 
many  of  the  pickers,  particularly  the  younger  ones. 

Pickers  Want  to  Quit. — Lastly  we  have  the  fact  that  these 
fruits  are  the  last  to  be  picked,  blackberries  being  abso- 
lutely the  rear  guard,  and  a  picker  who  started  out  enthusiasti- 
cally on  strawberries  may  decide  when  he  gets  to  the  blackberries 
that  he  has  earned  enough  money,  or  that  he  would  prefer  to 
hoe  com,  or  work  in  his  own  garden,  or  even  go  fishing.  It  is, 
therefore,  especially  desirable  to  establish  some  bonus  system 
for  the  pickers  who  stay  right  through  the  season. 


ispberries,  Sumner, 
Washington,  which  have  produced  14,000  pounds  of 
berries  per  acre  in  two  successive  years.  It  is  a  "man's 
job"  to  reach  to  the  top  of  canes  like  these. 


TAIvE  BERRIES  TO  SHADE 


213 


When  operations  are  on  a  fairly  large  scale  or  help  has  to  be 
brought  from  a  distance  some  regular  quarters  for  the  pickers 
will  help  greatly  in  getting  the  required  help  (Fig.  119). 

Young  Pickers. — With  some  methods  of  training,  particu- 
larly the  stake  method,  and  with  very  tall  canes,  it  is  not  always 
possible  to  employ  quite  such  juvenile  pickers  with  these  berries 
as  with  strawberries,  unless  they  are  attended  by  older  relatives 


^.•%' 


Fk;.  121. — Block  of  Perfection  red  raspberries  in  full  bearing  trained  in  stake  method. 
Taller  than  a  man's  head  and  loaded  with  fruit.  Children  would  find  it  impossible  to  pick 
successfully  in  such  a  plantation  as  this. 


who  will  pick  on  the  same  row  and  gather  the  berries  from  the 
tops  of  the  canes  (Figs.  117,  120  and  121). 

Take  Berries  to  Shade. — Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
the^e  berries,  and  particularly  the  blackberries,  out  of  the  sun 
after  they  lun-e  been  picked.  Exposure  to  hot  sun  for  even  a 
few  minutes  will  cause  them  to  turn  reddish,  detracting  mate- 
rially from  their  appearance  and  quality,  and  at  the  same  time 
reducing  the  length  of  time  that  they  will  stand  up  in  transit. 
If  they  cannot  be  taken  at  once  to  the  packing  shed  (Figs.  122 
and  123)  they  should  at  least  be  placed  in  the  shade  of  a  tree. 


214     HARVESTING  THE  RASPBERJRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 


Fig.   123. — A  good  type  of  packing  shed.     Note  type  of  carriers  which  girls  are  filling  with 
empty  boxes. 

Avoid  Picking  Damp  Berries. — The  berries  ought  not  to  be 
picked  while  they  are  damp;  this  is  especially  important  with 
red  raspberries.  In  seasons  of  heavy  dews  it  may  be  difficult  to 
avoid  having  some  moisture  on  them  where  picking  is  done  in 
the  cool  of  the  morning,  which  is  always  a  temptation  at  this 


RIPENING  PERIOD  215 

time  of  year,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  what  is  gained 
in  the  comfort  of  the  pickers  and  in  the  coohiess  of  the  berries 
is  more  than  lost  in  the  gi-eater  danger  that  the  fruit  will  not 
stand  up  well  and  that  decay  will  start. 

Careful  Handling. — The  berries  ought  to  be  handled  very 
carefully,  for  although  there  is  less  danger  from  the  rough  hand- 
ling of  these  fruits  than  with  strawberries,  yet  with  red  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries,  especially  if  they  are  ripe,  a  good  deal 
of  damage  may  be  done  if  they  are  thrown  into  the  boxes  instead 
of  being  placed  in  them  carefully.  Black  raspberries,  being 
firmer,  will  stand  up  better  under  adverse  treatment,  but  even 
these  are  considerably  damaged  by  rough  handling.  If  the 
pickers  are  trained  to  use  the  thumb  and  two  fingers  in  picking 
a  berry,  instead  of  the  thumb  and  one  finger,  less  pressure  will 
be  required  to  remove  it  from  the  receptacle  and  it  will  con- 
sequently be  in  better  condition.  It  is  also  important  that  only 
a  few  berries  be  held  in  the  hand  at  a  time. 

Frequent  Picking. — The  plantation  should  be  picked  over 
frequently.  Usually  every  other  day  will  be  sufiicient  for  any 
particular  row,  but  with  unusually  warm  weather  it  may  be  de- 
sirable to  pick  every  day.  The  reds  deteriorate  more  quickly 
than  the  blacks  or  blackberries,  but  none  of  them  are  improved 
by  leaving  on  the  bushes  too  long. 

Clean  picking  of  the  bushes  ought  also  to  be  insisted  on.  If 
there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  degi'ee  of  ripeness  of  the 
fruit  some  grading  may  be  done  by  the  pickers,  putting  the 
ripest  in  one  box  and  the  firmer  berries  in  another;  then  the 
ripe  berries  may  be  used  locally  for  canning,  while  the  firmer 
ones  are  shipped  to  market.  Even  if  they  are  all  shipped,  the 
separation  of  the  two  degrees  of  ripeness  is  desirable.  Any 
berries  which,  at  picking  time,  are  so  ripe  that  they  are  a 
menace  to  the  other  berries  should  be  picked  and  dropped  on  the 
ground.  Never  leave  them  on  the  bushes,  as  some  of  them  are 
sure  to  get  into  later  pickings. 

The  ripening  period  is  considerably  longer  with  the  red 
raspberries  than  with  any  of  the  others.  This  is  due  to  the 
longer  blossoming  period  which  might  be  expected  from  an  ex- 


216      MARKETING  THE  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 

aminatiou  of  figures  93,  94,  95  and  96.  This  is  a  distinct 
advantage  in  the  home  plantation,  since  it  lengthens  the  period 
during  which  the  fniit  may  be  had  for  the  family  table.  For 
commercial  plantations  it  is  for  the  most  part  an  objection,  be- 
canso  it  adds  to  the  expense  of  picking,  as  it  necessitates  going- 
over  the  plantation  a  greater  number  of  times.  Of  course,  if 
pickers  are  paid  by  the  box  the  extra  expense  is  on  them  instead 
of  on  the  owner. 

A  Berry  Harvester. — In  sections  where  these  beiTies  are 
grown  exclusively  for  drying,  or  in  plantations  where  the  last 
of  the  crop  is  used  in  this  way,  a  harvester  is  often  used  for 
gathering  the  fruit.  This  is  a  light  frame  of  wood  about  three 
feet  square,  covered  with  canvas.  It  is  slid  along  the  row  and 
the  operator  carries  a  hook  in  one  hand  and  a  paddle  or  batter 
in  the  other.  With  the  former  he  pulls  the  canes  over  the  har- 
vester, and  with  the  paddle  or  batter  knocks  the  fruit  off.  This 
sounds  like  a  rough  method,  and  is  not  as  gentle  as  might  be 
desired,  but  for  berries  which  are  to  go  at  once  to  the  evaporator 
it  has  been  found  entirely  satisfactory.  Of  course,  more  or  less 
leaves  and  twigs  are  gathered  with  the  berries  by  the  harvester 
method,  but  they  can  be  removed  by  fanning  and  picking  at  con- 
siderably less  cost  than  by  hand  picking  of  the  fruit.  It  will 
cost  about  one-half  cent  a  quart  to  gather  with  the  harvester 
method,  as  against  one  and  one-half  or  two  cents  for  picking. 

For  this  method  the  fruit  is  allowed  to  become  very  ripe  and 
the  entire  crop  is  gathered  in  two,  or  at  the  most  three,  times 
over  the  plantation  in  the  season. 

MAEKETI^STG 

Except  in  those  sections  of  the  country  where  the  growing  of 
raspberries  and  blackberries  has  been  so  largely  developed  as  to 
become  one  of  the  leading  industries  (Fig.  124)  there  is  usually 
a  good  local  demand  for  the  fresh  fruit,  and  this  is  by  all  means 
the  best  type  of  market.  Even  a  relatively  small  town  will  take 
the  entire  output  of  a  good-sized  plantation  if  the  fruit  is  put  up 
well  and,  in  particular,  if  it  is  delivered  to  the  customers  fresh 
and  ripe.     That  is  where  the  local  man  can  score  every  time. 


BOXES  AND  CRATES 


217 


Fig.    124. — Delivering  berries  at  the  Puyallup  Association  warehouse. 


I 
1 


Fig.    125. — After  loading;,  cars  are  pre-cooled  by  forcing  currents  of  cool  air  tlirou^'h  tlicm, 
requiring  about  forty  minutes. 

Where  the  industry  is  highly  devek)ped  shipping  in  cooled  cars 
©r  refrigeratoi's  is  often  necessary  (Figs.  125  and  12G). 

Boxes  and  Crates. — Red  raspberries  are  marketed  almost 
exclnsively  in  the  ohlong,  pint  boxes  (Fig.  127.)  The  few  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rnle  are  markets  which  have  always  had  the 


218      MARKETING  THE  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 

quart  size  and  are  too  conservative  to  change.  The  advantages 
of  the  pint  over  the  quart  for  red  raspberries  are,  first  and  by 
far  the  most  important,  that  the  fruit  is  not  so  likely  to  be 
damaged  b}  the  weight  of  the  berries  themselves,  and  second, 
that  better  prices  can  be  realized  for  them  since  customers  are 

quite  reconciled  to  pay  more 
than  half  as  much  for  a  pint 
as  for  a  quart. 

For  blackberries  and  black 
raspberries  the  quart  boxes 
are  almost  always  used,  since 
the  firmer  texture  of  these 
berries  does  not  require  the 
small  package.  Occasionally, 
however,  markets  are  found 
which  prefer  the  pints  for 
these  as  well  as  the  reds. 

The  crates  used  for  these 
berries  vary  considerably,  but 
the  thirty-two-quart  size  is  the 
most  popular,  take  the  coun- 
try as  a  whole  (Fig.  Y9). 
This  holds  thirty-two  of  the 
quart  boxes  or  sixty  of  the 
oblong  pint  boxes.  In  some 
sections,  notably  in  the 
Pacific  .  iSTorthwest,  the  flat 
twenty-four  quart  crate  is 
used  almost  exclusively 
(Figs.  128  and  129). 
Drying. — In  many  sections  the  growing  of  black  raspberries 
for  the  especial  purpose  of  drying  them  for  market  is  a  large 
and  prosperous  industry.  Blackberries  are  sometimes  grown  for 
this  purpose,  and  to  a  much  less  extent  the  red  raspberries  are 
used,  but  the  shrinkage  is  so  great  with  them  both  that  they 
are  not  nearly  so  profitable  as  the  firmer  fleshed  and  more  seedy 
blaek  raspberries. 


Fig.  126. — Pony  refrigerator  used  in  ship- 
ping berries  in  less  than  carload  lots  to  distant 
markets.  Each  refrigerator  holds  60  pints  and 
20  lbs.  of  ice. 


DRYING 


219 


A  quart  of  red  raspberries  will  give,  on  the  average,  a  little 
less  than  a  quarter  of  a  pouud  of  the  dried  product,  so  that  the 
grower  will  secure  perhaps  seven  or,  at  the  uiost,  eight  pounds 


Fig.    127. — Oblong  pint  boxes,  the  most  popular  type  for  raspberries,  especially  the  reds. 


itis  used  in  Washington  and  ' 
holds  24  boxe 


berry  sections.    Each  crate 


per  bushel  of  fresh  fruit.  With  the  black  raspberries  ten  pounds 
per  bushel  are  not  uncommon.  Of  course,  the  amount  of  dried 
fruit  secured  from  a  bushel  varies  greatly  with  the  season.  In 
the  early  part,  when  the  growth  is  more  active,  or  in  seasons 


220       MARKETING   THE  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 


I  quart  of  fresh  fruit  will  give  less 


loss  active  and  moisture 


when  moisture  is  abundant 
dried  product  than  when  growth 
less  abundant. 

Another  point  against  drying  the  reds  is  the  fact  that  the 
dried  product  takes  on  an  unattractive,  dull  red  color,  so  that 
thej  are  not  nearly  as  salable  as  the  dried  black  raspberries. 

In  sections  where  the  evaporating  industry  is  well  established 
so  that  plants  for  the  purpose  are  plentiful,  it  is  a  fairly  com- 
mon custom  to  market  the  first  part  of  the  crop  of  reds  or  black- 


FlG.   129. — Packing  crates  in  the  car  for  ship i: 
to  the  top.     About  600  ci 


it.    Each  crate  is  held  in  place  by  laths  nailed 
-s  are  placed  in  each  car. 


berries  in  the  fresh  condition,  and  then  dry  the  last  end  of  the 
crop  when  the  berries  are  poorer  and  the  picking  cannot  be  done 
so  rapidly,  or  at  any  time  during  the  season  when  the  market 
for  fresh  fruit  is  particularly  poor. 

Devices  for  Drying. — The  evaporating  of  these  fruits  is  done 
in  a  small  way  at  home  by  various  devices,  from  a  simple  tray 
or  pan  placed  in  the  oven  or  top  of  the  stove,  to  more  or  less 
complicated  patented  devices  which  can  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  ordinary  kitchen  stove  or  may  have  special  heating 
apparatus  of  their  own.  One  of  the  best  of  these  homo  types  is 
an  evaporating  pan  with  a  double  or  jacketed  bottom.      The 


CANNING  AND  PRESERVING  221 

space  between  the  two  bottoms  is  water-tight,  and  when  in  use 
this  space  is  filled  with  water,  the  evaporator  is  placed  on  the 
back  of  the  stove  and  the  pan  filled  with  the  berries.  The  great 
advantage  of  this  type  is  the  fact  that  so  long  as  water  is  kept  in 
it  there  is  no  possibility  of  the  fniit  being  scorched. 

For  commercial  work  two  or  three  general  types  of  evapora- 
ators  are  in  nse.  The  simplest  method  is  to  dry  in  the  sun,  and 
where  weather  conditions  will  pennit  this  method  is  often  used. 
The  objections  to  it  are  that  it  is  slow,  and  that  flies  and  other 
insects  are  attracted  in  such  numbers  as  to  render  the  product 
not  attractive  to  one  who  knows  how  it  was  cured. 

A  second  method  is  to  utilize  greenhouses,  which  has  the 
advantage  over  the  last  method  of  protecting  the  fiiiit  from 
dampness  of  dews  or  rain,  and  of  increasing,  very  decidedly, 
the  temperature.  With  proper  attention  the  fly  nuisance  may 
also  be  somewhat  abated. 

Commercial  Drying  Plants. — By  far  the  best  and  most  popu- 
lar method  in  commercial  work  is  the  use  of  some  type  of  evapo- 
rator. These  vary  greatly  in  style  and  management.  As  a  rule, 
hot-air  furnaces  are  used,  but  occasionally  steam  is  employed  as  a 
source  of  heat. 

The  plant  generally  consists  of  a  small  building  with  the 
furnace  and  stack  for  drying  at  one  end.  In  some  cases  the 
fresh  fruit  is  put  in  on  trays  at  the  bottom  of  the  stack  and 
gradually  raised  as  other  trays  are  put  in  until  it  reaches  the 
top  of  the  stack  in  a  dried  condition  and  is  taken  out  on  the 
upper  floor  of  the  building.  In  other  plants  this  procedure  is 
reversed,  the  fresh  fruit  being  put  in  at  the  top  of  the  stack  and 
the  dried  product  taken  out  at  the  bottom.  The  advantage 
claimed  for  this  latter  method  is  that  the  fruit  dries  more 
rapidly  because  the  vapor  from  the  fresh  fruit  does  not  pass  up- 
ward through  all  that  which  is  partially  dried.  The  objection 
to  it  is  that  the  upper  story  makes  a  somewhat  better  place  to 
store  the  dried  product  and  that  there  is  more  labor  involved  in 
taking  the  fresh  berries  to  the  top  story. 

Canning  and  Preserving. — Besides  being  used  in  a  fresh 
state  and  dried,  blackbei-ries  and  raspberries  may  be   canned 


222      MARKETING  THE  RASPBERRY  AND  BLACKBERRY 

(Fig.  130)  or  made  into  jams  aud  occasionally  into  jellies.  The 
last  two  are  usually  either  strictly  home  propositions,  or  else 
they  are  used  where  a  special  local  market  can  be  developed. 
But  canning  of  these  berries  is  a  large  and  important  industry, 
and  with  blackberries  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  commer- 
cial crop  is  canned  than  dried.  They  may  be  put  up  in  sugar  of 
varying  percentages,  or  canned  without  sugar,  being  merely  steril- 
ized by  heating,  and  the  sugar  added  at  the  time  the  fruit  is  used. 
Yields. — It  goes  without  saying  that  yields  will  vary  greatly. 


Fig.  130. — Crates  of  berries  for  the  cannery.    Berries  too  soft  for  shipment  are  canned. 

Factors  influencing  the  yield  are  the  locality,  the  grower,  the 
variety,  and  the  age  of  the  plantation.  With  all  these  influenc- 
ing the  result  there  is  little  value,  perhaps,  in  figures,  but  the 
fivllowing  table  may  be  of  interest,  giving  the  yields  per  acre: 

Berry                                    Low  Yields  Average  Yields  High  Yields 

Red  raspberry  1000  qts.  2200  qts.  4000  qts. 

Black  raspberry  1200  qts.  2400  qts.  4800  qts. 

Blackberry  1400  qts.  3000  qts.  6000  qts. 

QUESTION'S 

1  How  would  you  tell  when  blackberries  were  ready  to  pick?     On  what 

does  this  depend  ? 

2  Have  you   ever   picked   raspberries?     How   do  you   tell   when   the   red 

varieties  are  ripe  enough  to  pick?    The  black  varieties? 


QUESTIONS  223 

3.  How  would  you  reduce  to  a  niinimuiii  the  trouble  from  the  thorniness 

of  these  fruits  ? 

4.  Discuss  the  handling  of  these  berries  as  they  are  picked. 

5.  What  is  the  objection  to  picking  berries  when  they  are  wet?     Can  this 

always  be  avoided? 

6.  How  often  ought  raspberry  plantations  to  be  picked  over? 

7.  Describe  the  berry  harvester.     Did  you  ever  see  one  in  use?     What  do 

you  think  would  be  the  objections  to  one? 

8.  What  crates  and  boxes  are  used  for  those  berries? 
S).  Describe  tlie  evaporating  of  raspberries. 


CURRANTS  AND   GOOSEBERRIES 


IS 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

SITES,  SOILS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION  FOR  CURRANTS 

AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

The  requirements  of  currants  and  gooseberries  as  to  loca- 
tions and  soils  are  practically  identical.  Both  plants,  in  their 
wild  state,  are  inhabitants  of  north  temperate  regions,  or  of  high 
altitudes,  where  the  mean  summer  temperature  is  relatively- 
low.  And  both  thrive  under  partial  shade,  being  found  for  the 
most  part  in  our  northern  woods.  Doubtless  this  preference  for 
shady  locations  is  in  part  due  to  the  fact  that  the  shade  tends  to 
keep  the  temperatures  low. 

As  to  soils  the  preference  of  the  wild  forms  is  for  the  heavier 
types,  a  clay  loam  being  perhaps  the  ideal,  and  even  the  rather 
heavy  clays  being  popular  with  both  plants.  They  will  often  be 
found  growing  upon  somewhat  lighter  soils,  provided  that  these 
are  low-lying  or  are  exceptionally  well  supplied  with  humus, 
so  that  in  any  case  the  supply  of  soil  moistvire  will  be  abundant 
and  constant. 

Taking  the  foregoing  as  indicating  the  preferences  of  these 
plants  in  their  natural  state,  and  checking  them  up  with  the 
conditions  under  which  the  commercial  growing  of  currants  and 
gooseberries  is  most  successful,  we  may  lay  down  the  following 
principles  as  those  which  ought  to  be  considered  in  locating  a 
commercial  plantation  of  these  fruits,  or  in  growing  them  for 
home  use. 

Localities. — To  be  most  successful  these  fniits  should  be 
grown  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States,  or  across  the 
line  in  Canada,  or  else  in  mountainous  regions  where  the  high 
altitude  produces  a  climate  similar  to  these  northern  sections. 
They  will  not,  as  a  rule,  do  their  best  south  of  Ohio.  As  one 
gets  away  from  these  regions  which  are  the  natural  habitat  of 
these  fi-uits,  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  more  subject  to  dis- 
eases, requiring  more  spraying  to  keep  them  healthy ;  and  even 
where  they  are  not  attacked  by  disease  they  are  not  likely  to  be  as 

227 


228  SITES  FOR  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

productive.  The  gTower,  therefore,  who  coiitempUites  estab- 
lishing a  plantation  of  either  of  these  fruits  as  a  part  of  his 
fruit-growing  venture,  ought  to  consider  carefully  whether  he 
can  give  them  the  natural  conditions  that  they  need.  If  he  can- 
not thej  are  not  likely  to  be  as  satisfactory  as  some  other  fniits, 
either  for  the  local  markets,  which  is  the  natural  outlet  for  them, 
or  to  be  shipped  to  more  distant  markets  where  they  will  come 
into  competition  with  fruits  grown  in  more  favored  sections. 

Sites. — Within  any  region,  and  even  on  any  particular  farm, 
there  will  be  a  marked  difference  in  the  desirability  of  different 
fields  or  sites  for  these  fruits.  Some  of  the  factors  which  ought 
to  be  considered  in  selecting  the  site  are  the  following: 

1.  A  northern  or  northeastern  exposure  is  almost  always  to 
be  preferred.  It  is  only  as  one  approaches  the  northern  limit  of 
the  successful  culture  of  these  fruits  that  this  factor  can  be 
ignored  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured.  The  advantages  of 
the  northern  slope  are  two :  First,  that  it  is  cooler,  and  second, 
that  it  is  not  so  much  exposed  to  the  dry  southerly  winds.  In 
both  cases,  but  especially  the  first  named,  it  is  surprising  how 
slight  a  slope  will  prove  effective.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
slope  should  be  much  more  than  enough  to  drain  the  land  thor- 
oughly of  surface  water  in  order  to  produce  a  marked  difference 
in  the  temperature  of  the  soil.  Men  who  grow  early  straw- 
berries, or  who  grow  cantaloupes  somewhat  out  of  their  natural 
range,  soon  learn  what  a  slight  slant  to  the  south  is  necessary  in 
order  to  produce  a  decided  difference  in  the  temperautre  of  the 
soil.  And  the  reverse  is  equally  true  when  one  wishes  to  keep 
the  soil  cool. 

The  laiv  in  physics  in  the  case  is  that  the  amount  of  heat 
absorbed  directly  from  the  ray  of  sunshine  varies  with  the  angle 
which  this  raj  makes  with  the  surface  of  the  field.  If  the  slope 
is  to  the  south  and  is  sufiiciently  steep  so  that  the  sun's  rays  strike 
the  surface  of  the  field  at  a  right  angle,  then  the  soil  will  get  the 
largest  amount  of  heat  possible  directly  from  the  sun.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  slope  is  to  the  north  and  is  steep  enough  so 
that  the  sun's  rays  fall  parallel  to  the  slope,  then  no  heat  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  soil  directly  from  the  sun's  rays.     In  this  latter 


SHADE  229 

case  the  soil  must  get  what  heat  it  does  acquire,  not  direct  from 
the  sun,  but  indirectly  from  the  air.  Between  these  two  ex- 
tremes we  have,  of  course,  all  intermediate  grades  or  steps  in  the 
absorption  of  the  sun's  heat  by  the  soil. 

1.  Drying  winds  are  even  more  to  be  dreaded  than  the  hot 
sun,  and  while  j)c'rliaps  the  northern  slope  is  not  quite  so  effec- 
tive in  stopping  their  effect,  yet  it  is  a  gTcat  assistance  and  ought 
to  be  taken  advantage  of  whenever  possible. 

2.  Higher  elevations  are  usually  to  be  chosen,  other  things 
being  equal.  Of  course,  other  things  seldom  are  equal  and  it 
then  becomes  necessary  to  use  one's  judgment  as  to  whether 
elevation  or  some  other  factor  is  the  more  important.  But  the 
fact  ought  never  to  be  lost  sight  of  that  no  great  difference  in 
elevation  is  required  to  make  a  very  substantial  difference  in  the 
temperature  of  two  fields.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation 
that  even  a  hundred  feet  difference  in  elevation  may  cause 
enough  difference  in  temperature  so  that  the  first  snow  comes 
earlier  and  does  not  melt  nearly  so  quickly. 

3.  Air  drainage  is  apt  to  be  important  for  two  reasons :  First, 
because  these  fruits  bloom  very  early  and  are  therefore  likely 
to  be  caught  by  late  frosts,  and  second,  because  some  varieties  in 
some  sections  are  subject  to  fungous  diseases  which  are  encour- 
aged by  poor  atmospheric  drainage.  If,  therefore,  the  slope  can 
be  not  only  to  the  north  but  sufficient  to 
the  ideal  location  will  have  been  secured. 

4.  Moisture  Conditions. — Occasionally  lower  levels  may  be 
preferable  because  the  moisture  conditions  are  better  there. 
This  is  more  likely  to  be  the  case  as  one  gets  farther  north, 
where  the  mean  temperature  is  lower,  but  it  may  happen  even 
in  sections  which  are  fairly  well  to  the  southern  part  of  the 
range  of  these  fruits. 

5.  Shade. — A  last  factor  which  ought  to  be  considered  in 
this  matter  of  site,  whether  it  be  a  commercial  plantation  or  one 
for  home  use,  is  shade.  The  currant  and  gooseberry  not  only 
tolerate  partial  shade  but  in  many  sections  are  the  better  for  it. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  where  the  mean  temperature  tends 
to  run  too  high  to  be  ideal.     For  small  home  plantations  the 


230 


SOILS  FOR  CUBRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 


north  side  of  a  building  or  eveu  of  a  board  fence  may  be  utilized 
for  the  cuiTant  or  gooseberry  patch,  and  even  those  bushes  which 
are  too  far  away  to  be  shaded  will  be  benefited  by  the  shutting 
off  of  the  south  wind. 

Another  very  common  practice  is  to  set  them  between  any 
fruit  trees  which  may  be  growing  in  the  garden,  as  is  shown 


Fig.   131. — Currants  and  gooseberries  grown  under  fruit  trees  in  the  garden.   They  succeed 
well  in  such  locations,  preferring  partial  shade  to  too  much  sun. 

in  figure  1.31.  Here  they  will  usually  do  very  well  if  they  are 
not  too  thoroughly  neglected,  whicli  they  generally  are. 

Commercially  it  is  rarely  possible  to  give  these  fniits  any 
shade  except  as  they  may  be  grown  in  orchards,  and  this  is  not  a 
good  practice  from  the  standpoint  of  the  orchard,  and  frequently 
not  from  that  of  the  currants  or  gooseberries,  because  neither 
can  be  given  as  good  culture  as  where  the  two  plantations 
are  separate. 

Soils. — The  ideal  soil,  as  already  suggested,  is  a  heavy  soil. 
It  ought  seldom  to  bo  lighter  than  a  cla^^  loam,  though  some  of 


SOILS  FOR  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES  231 

the  silty  soils  may  be  utilized  satisfactorily,  provided  that  the 
site  is  good  in  other  respects. 

Since  one  reason  for  preferring  the  heavy  soil  is  its  coolness, 
it  follows  that  as  one  goes  north  the  importance  of  a  heavy  soil 
decreases  until  one  might  conceivably  be  justified  in  using  even 
a  fairly  light  sandy  loam  if  the  soil  were  ideal  in  other  respects. 

An  abundant  and  continuous  supply  of  moisture  being  one 
of  the  principal  requirements  of  the  soil  for  these  plants  it  fol- 
lows that  humus  is  an  all-important  matter,  and  a  lighter  soil 
which  is  well  supplied  with  it  might  be  used,  while  a  fairly  heavy 
soil  which  is  deficient  in  it  would  not  be  successful  with  either 
currants  or  gooseberries. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  type  of  soils  do  currants  and  gooseberries  prefer? 

2.  What  exposure  is  best  for  them  ? 

.3.  Where  are  the  most  successful  currant  growing  regions? 

4.  What  elevation  would  you  choose  as  a  site  for  a  gooseberry  ])lantation? 

5.  Discuss  air-drainage  as  it  afTects  a  currant  plantation. 

6.  Have  you   seen   successful   plantations   of   currants  or  gooseberries   in 

your  own  section?     Where  were  they  located? 

7.  How  does  shade  affect  these  fruits? 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

VARIETIES  AND  PROPAGATION  OF  CURRANTS 
AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

The  currants  and  gooseberries  form  a  very  interesting  group 
botanically.  They  all  belong  to  the  genns  Bibes  and  from  this 
by  some  authorities  are  called  Ribaceons  fruits ;  while  by  others 
they  are  grouped  together  under  the  name  of  Groselles. 

Varieties  of  Currants.— The  cultivated  currants  are  derived 
mostly  from  two  species,  both  of  them  of  European  origin.  The 
red  and  white  varieties  are  cultivated  forms  of  Rihes  vulgare, 
while  the  blacks  are  from  Rihes  nigrum.  There  are  a  few  varie- 
ties in  cultivation  which  have  come  from  some  of  our  native 
American  species  (the  Crandall,  for  example),  but  they  are 
very  little  prized  and  very  seldom  grown  and  need  not  be 
considered  here. 

Commercially  the  red  varieties  are  practically  the  only  ones 
grown.  The  white  varieties  are  apt  to  be  milder  in  flavor  than 
the  reds  and  are  highly  prized  for  home  use,  particularly  where 
the  fruit  is  eaten  in  a  fresh  state,  but  they  are  practically  never 
grown  for  market. 

Leading  varieties  of  currants  are  the  Cherry,  Fay,  Perfec- 
tion, Red  Cross,  and  Wilder  among  reds ;  the  White  Grape  and 
White  Imperial  among  whites,  and  the  Naples,  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  Champion  among  blacks. 

Black  currants  have  a  peculiar,  strong  flavor  and  odor,  and 
while  they  are  highly  prized  in  England  and  Canada,  they  have 
never  become  popular  in  the  United  States.  There  is,  therefore, 
likely  to  be  a  very  limited  demand  for  them  in  any  section  of  the 
United  States ;  but  those  who  want  them,  want  them  badly  and 
will  pay  good  prices  for  them,  so  that  the  commercial  grower 
might  well  consider  the  advisability  of  growing  a  few  of  them 
on  his  plantation. 

Types  of  Gooseberries. — There  are  two  general  and  fairly 
232 


PROPAGATION  OF  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES     233 

distinct  tjpes  of  gooseberries  iu  ciiltivation,  the  European  or 
English  type,  and  the  American  type.  The  varieties  of  the 
European  group  are  cultivated  fonns  of  the  species  Rihes  gros- 
sularia,  the  wild  gooseberry  of  Europe,  and  are  characterized  by 
much  larger  fruit  and  by  a  smaller,  more  compact  and  upright 
growing  bush  than  the  American  form. 

The  botany  of  the  American  group  is  not  so  clear.  Appar- 
ently most  of  them  have  come  from  the  species  Rihes  l^irtellum, 
yet  several  which  are  ordinarily  classed  as  American  varieties 
very  probably  are  hybrids  between  Pdhes  grossularia  and  prob- 
ably Rihes  hirtellum.  But  if  they  are  hybrids  the  characters  of 
the  parent  American  species  are  much  more  prominent  in  the 
offspring  than  those  of  the  European  parent  (Eig.  132). 

Fig.  132. — Types  of  gooseberries.    English  varieties  at  left,  American  at  right. 

Varieties  of  Gooseberries. — While  the  list  of  gooseberry 
varieties  is  considerably  longer  than  that  of  currants,  yet  the 
number  of  sorts  gTown  commercially,  or  even  for  home  use,  is 
comparatively  short.  Among  the  European  varieties  Industry 
is  far  more  commonly  grown  than  any  other,  with  Chautauqua 
and  Crown  Bob  as  varieties  of  secondary  importance,  while  of 
the  American  group  Do^vning  is  the  leader,  with  Houghton, 
and  Pearl  as  popular  seconds. 

Propagation  of  Currants  and  Gooseberries. — 'No  fruits  are 
more  easily  propagated  than  currants  and  gooseberries,  and  sev- 
eral different  methods  of  propagation  are  in  use.  Hardwood 
cuttings,  single-eye  cuttings,  layers  and  green  cuttings  are  all  of 
them  used  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  the  hardwood-cutting 
method  is  the  only  one  that  is  used  to  any  great  extent  commer- 
cially.   For  tliis  purpose  straight  cuttings  of  one-year  wood,  such 


234     PROPAGATION  OF  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

as  is  showTi  in  figures  133  and  134,  are  taken.  They  should  be 
from  six  to  ten  inches  in  length,  but  usually  about  eight  inches. 
These  may  be  cut  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  fall  and  are 
handled  in  a  number  of  different  ways.  Whatever  the  method 
of  handling  is  to  be  the  wood  is  cut  into  the  desired  length  and 
made  up  into  bundles,  being  careful  to  have  the  butts  all  one 
way.    These  bundles  are  then  buried  with  the  butts  up  in  a  well- 


.   i  i        j 


Fig.    133. — A  one-year  cane    of    the    currant.      Such  wood  is  the  only    type    satisfactory 
for  cuttings. 


~  -y-j—r         ■      !' 

r-  -^Vp: 

■-^M=.p.^-4.--^vi:^ 

_  -iite 

^r-^^^  I 

1           ■           \     ' 
\           i 

■  i           ' 

f         .       IP-  -  -r*       ■   f^ 

1 

!;;.'.'    • 

,     '     ;' 

.  i  J 

Fig.    134- — One-year  shoot  of  the  gooseberrv.     Such  wood  will  produce  some  of  the  best  ot 
the  fruit. 

drained  spot  with  a  mellow  soil  and  are  covered  with  two  or 
three  inches  of  soil.  Here  the  butts  of  the  cuttings  form  a  callus 
and  may  even  start  roots. 

If  the  cuttings  have  been  made  early  in  the  autumn  they 
will  callus  in  time  so  that  they  may  be  taken  up  and  planted  out 
in  nursery  rows  before  the  gi'ound  freezes  ;  and  this  is  a  common 
practice.  If  they  are  not  to  be  set  out  that  autumn  they  are 
commonly  left  buried  over  winter,  some  additional  protection 
being  given  them  in  the  shape  of  a  mulch  to  prevent  the  tender 
roots  from  being  damaged. 


PROPAGATION  OF  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES     235 

Another  eoiiimou  method  is  to  make  up  the  cuttings  kiter  in 
the  season  and  store  them  in  sand  in  a  ceUar  where  they  will  not 
freeze.  They  are  then  set  out  in  nursery  rows  early  the  follow- 
ing spring.  Spring  planting  of  cuttings  must  be  done  very  early, 
however,  or  the  cutting's  will  have  started  too  much,  as  they 
begin  gi-owth  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature. 

Setting  the  Cuttings. — In  setting  out  the  cuttings,  whether  it 
is  done  in  autumn  or  spring,  several  different  methods  are  used : 
First,  the  land  may  be  furrowed  out  and  the  cuttings  planted  in 
the  furrow ;  or  second,  they  may  be  set  with  a  spade ;  or  third, 
they  may  be  set  with  a  dibble.  In  any  case,  the  cutting  is  put 
dowai  deep  enough  so  that  only  two  buds  are  left  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  the  soil  is  tramped  very  fii-mly  about 
them.  If  set  in  the  fall  a  light  mulch  of  straw  or  manure  should 
be  applied  along  the  rows,  or  a  furrow  may  be  plowed  over  them 
and  this  soil  raked  off  in  the  spring. 

For  conmiercial  pui-poses  or  for  home  use  if  a  good  growth 
is  desired  the  cuttings  should  be  planted  in  a  rich,  deep  soil. 
Here  they  will  grow  vigorously  and  will  make  large  enough 
plants,  so  that  they  will  be  of  a  marketable  size  at  one  year. 
This  is"  very  desirable,  as  most  gi'owers  have  a  decided  prejudice 
in  favor  of  one-year  plants. 

Single-eye  cuttings  are  seldom  used  except  where  the  wood 
is  very  scarce.  When  used  they  are  handled  much  as  the  longer 
cuttings,  but  are  covered  over  entirely  when  set,  the  cutting  being 
placed  with  the  bud  up  and  covered  to  the  depth  of  about 
an  inch. 

Layers  are  used  commercially  by  some  nurserymen.  For 
home  use,  where  only  a  few  new  plants  are  desired,  the  method 
works  out  very  well  and  is  more  generally  used.  The  branch  is 
bent  down  and  covered  with  earth  where  it  strikes  roots  readily. 
The  new  plants  are  transferred  to  the  new  row  the  following 
season.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  one  can  usually  find  quite  a  num- 
ber of  these  layers  which  have  rooted  of  themselves,  the  low- 
lying  branches  becoming  slightly  covered  with  earth  and  leaves, 
and  striking  roots  abundantly. 


236  QUESTIONS 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Frcmi  wliat  oonus  and  species  of  wild  fruits  are  currants  derived? 

2.  How  have  we  developed  the  cultivated  gooseberries? 

3.  What  are  the  best  varieties  of  currants  for  your  section? 

4.  What  are  the  best  gooseberries ?    Are  they  English  or  American  varieties? 

5.  Describe  the  propagation  of  currants  by  cuttings. 
(I.   How  are  gooseberries  propagated  by  laj^ers? 

7.  When  and  how  would  you  propagate  these  fruits  by  single-eye  cuttings? 


CHAPTER  XXV 

ESTABLISHING  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 
PLANTATIONS 

The  first  essential  in  starting  .a  successful  plantation  of 
currants  or  gooseberries  is  to  have  the  soil  thoroughly  prepared. 
]^o  treatment  after  the  plants  are  set  can  make  up  for  neglect  in 
this  particular.  If  possible  these  fruits  ought  to  follow  a  culti- 
vated crop,  preferably  such  a  crop  as  beans  or  potatoes  or  a  truck 
crop  where  good  fertilizing  and  thorough  cultivation  are  prac- 
ticed. And,  in  any  event,  it  is  usually  best  not  to  plow  under  a 
heavy  sod  for  them,  but  to  introduce  one  of  the  crops  suggested 
above  between  the  hay  crop  and  the  currants  or  goosebei-xies. 

Soil  Preparation. — The  land  should  be  plowed  deeply,  and 
even  for  spring  setting  it  is  much  better  to  plow  in  the  autumn. 
Eight  inches  will  be  found  none  too  deep  and  ten  inches  may 
be  even  better.  If  the  subsoil  is  at  all  compact,  as  it  frequently 
is  with  the  types  of  soils  selected  for  these  fniits,  it  may  pay 
well  to  follow  the  regular  plow  with  a  subsoil  plow  in  order  to 
break  up  this  compact  under  layer.  The  main  object  in  this 
preparation  is  to  secure  a  deep  soil  which  may  act  as  a  reservoir 
to  hold  soil  moisture  and  give  it  up  as  needed. 

After  plowing,  the  land  should  be  worked  very  thoroughly, 
going  over  the  land  at  least  twice,  and  preferably  three  times, 
with  a  disk  harrow.  The  first  time  over  should  always  be  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  plowing,  and  probably  the  second  time 
also ;  but  if  a  third  disking  is  given  it  may  well  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  plowing.  Follow  the  disk  with  at  least  one  other  type  of 
harrow,  and  finish  off  w^th  the  drag  or  planker.  This  leaves  the 
land  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  laying  off,  and  the  soil  is 
also  in  the  best  possible  condition  to  receive  the  plants,  being 
thoroughly  pulverized  but  not  so  loose  as  to  dry  out  readily. 

Distances  Apart. — The  land  is  next  marked  out  for  setting 

237 


238  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY  PLANTATIONS 

the  plants.  As  with  any  other  fruits,  the  distances  recommended 
vary  greatly,  being  all  the  way  from  two  and  one-half  or  three 
feet  by  four,  up  to  five  or  six  by  eight  feet.  The  distance  which 
ought  to  be  chosen  will  yary  with  at  least  four  factors : 

First,  the  soil.  If  this  is  heayy  and  fertile  the  distances 
ought  to  be  greater  than  if  it  is  lighter  and  less  fertile. 

Second,  the  variety.  The  English  gooseberries,  as  Industry, 
or  some  of  the  smaller  growing  currants,  might  do  well  at  three 
feet  apart.  The  large-growing  American  varieties  of  goose- 
berries, as  Houghton  and  Pearl,  or  the  larger  and  spreading 
types  of  currants,  as  Fay,  may  need  five  feet  or  even  more. 

Third,  the  culture  and  fertilizing  to  he  given.  With  good 
culture  and  high  fertilizing  the  plants  will  demand  much  more 
room  than  with  less  intensive  methods. 

Fourth,  the  method  of  cultivation  to  he  practiced.  If  the 
plantation  is  to  be  kept  under  intensive  cultivation  and  hand 
labor  is  to  be  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  then  the  plants  may 
be  set  closer  than  when  all  the  cultivation  is  to  be  done  by  horse 
cultivators,  and  where  it  will  be  necessary,  or  at  least  desirable, 
to  introduce  such  an  implement  as  the  grape  hoe. 

With  these  factors  in  mind  the  following  distances  may  be 
suggested — rows  four  feet  apart  and  plants  three  feet  in  the 
row,  or  with  the  hill  system,  plants  four  feet  apart  each  way — 
as  minimum  distances.  And  rows  seven  feet  apart  and  plants 
four  feet  apart  in  the  row,  or  with  the  hill  system,  plants  six 
feet  apart  each  way,  as  maximum  distances.  Probably  four 
feet  by  six  feet  for  rows,  and  five  by  five  feet  for  hills,  are  the 
most  generally  satisfactory  and  most  commonly  used  distances. 

The  marking  and  setting  may  be  done  in  several  different 
w^ays,  depending  largely  upon  the  size  of  the  plantation  to  be  set. 
With  large  fields  it  is  common  to  lay  oif  the  rows  in  one  direc- 
tion with  a  marker  and  then  plow  deep  furrows  in  the  other 
direction,  setting  the  plants  at  the  intersections  of  the 
marks  and  the  furrows.  With  smaller  plantations  the  land 
may  be  marked  l>oth  ways  with  the  marker  and  the  holes 
dug  with  a  shovel. 

Spring  or  Fall  Planting. — Both  spring  and  fall  plantings  are 


SPRING  OR  FALL  PLANTING  239 

practiced.  There  is  one  rather  strong  argument  in  favor  of  fall 
jjlanting,  and  a  second  one  which  has  considerable  weight. 

The  first  argument  is  that  both  of  these  fruits,  but  espe- 
cially gooseberries,  start  very  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  nothing 
uncommon  to  find  the  buds  well  swollen  when  the  snow  goes  off 
in  the  late  winter  or  early  spring,  and  the  very  first  warm  days 
are  sure  to  bring  them  on  rapidly  so  that  before  such  trees  as 
apples  and  pears  begin  to  show  the  slightest  sign  of  starting 
growth  the  gooseberry  row  is  quite  green.  It  is  therefore  very 
difiicult  to  get  them  into  the  ground  in  the  spring  before  the 
leaves  start,  and  if  this  is  not  done  the  subsequent  growth,  at 
least  for  that  year,  is  likely  to  be  disappointing. 

The  second  argument  is  that  these  fruits  ripen  their  wood 
very  early  in  the  autumn  and  the  leaves  drop  of  themselves  in 
plenty  of  time  for  the  plants  to  be  dug  from  the  nursery  rows 
for  setting.  This  avoids  one  of  the  most  serious  objections  to 
setting  orchards  in  the  fall,  vtz.j  that  the  young  trees  do  not  shed 
their  leaves  and  consequently  the  leaves  have  to  be  "  stripped  " 
or  removed  from  the  trees  by  hand,  which  usually  means  poorly 
ripened  stock. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  changeable  climates,  or  in  sections 
where  the  winter  climate  is  likely  to  be  very  dry,  there  is  fre- 
quently a  great  deal  of  winter  injury  to  the  newly-set  plants. 
This  winter  injury  can  be  greatly  reduced  and  frequently  pre- 
vented altogether  by  some  slight  protection  to  the  newly-set 
plants.  Either  straw  or  strawy  manure  sprinkled  lightly  along 
the  rows  will,  to  a  large  extent,  prevent  the  alternate  freezing 
and  thawing  of  the  soil  or  the  serious  drying  out  of  it.  These 
factors  are  usually  responsible  for  most  of  the  damage  done. 

On  the  whole,  setting  very  early  in  the  spring  is  probably 
best,  especially  if  the  plants  can  be  dug  the  autumn  before  and 
stored  where  they  will  not  get  the  sun's  rays,  preferably  burying 
them  entirely  with  earth.  N"ext  to  this  very  early  spring  plant- 
ing would  stand  autumn  setting,  with  late  spring  setting  bring- 
ing up  the  rear  and  a  long  way  behind. 

The  plants  are  prepared  for  setting  by  trimming  back  the 
roots  from  one-third  to  one-half,  and  usually  by  cutting  back  the 


240  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY  PLANTATIONS 

tops  more  or  less,  though  this  latter  is  less  common  than  shortr 
ening  the  roots.  The  cutting  of  the  roots  may  be  done  on  a 
chopping  block,  using  a  sharp  hatchet  or  a  heavy  corn  knife,  as 
is  done  with  strawberries.  The  tops  may  be  pi*uned  back  in  the 
same  way,  though  it  is  a  bit  crude,  and  a  pruning  shear  is 
often  preferred. 

Methods  of  Setting. — The  land  having  been  marked  oif,  the 
plants  are  set  in  vai-ious  ways.  If  furrows  have  been  plowed  in 
the  laying  oif  of  the  land  then  the  plants  are  set  against  the 
upright  or  land  side  of  the  furrow,  at  the  points  where  the  cross- 
marks  intersect  the  furrows,  and  the  earth  is  shoveled  back 
onto  the  roots  and  tramped  down  firmly.  In  some  cases  it  may 
be  necessary  to  shovel  out  a  little  of  the  loose  earth  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow,  but  usually  not  if  the  furrow  has  been  plowed 
as  deep  as  ten  inches. 

Where  the  land  has  been  marked  both  ways  the  holes  are  dug 
with  a  shovel  and  the  plants  set  as  trees  would  be,  or  they  may 
be  set  with  a  spade  without  digging  any  hole,  as  strawberries  are 
often  set  and  as  is  shown  in  figures  42  to  45. 

Whatever  method  is  used  it  is  essential  that  the  soil  be 
pressed  very  firmly  about  the  roots.  This  is  a  crucial  matter 
with  autumn  setting  because,  at  best,  the  plants  will  be  none  too 
firmly  in  contact  with  the  soil ;  and  with  the  heavy  types  of 
soils,  generally  chosen  for  these  fruits,  "  heaving  "  of  the  plants 
in  winter  is  a  common  difficulty. 

The  plants  are  generally  set  somewhat  deeper  than  they  stood 
in  the  nursery  rows,  and  like  all  plants  which  tend  to  throw  up 
shoots  from  about  the  crown,  there  is  little  danger  from  setting 
them  considerably  deeper  than  they  originally  stood. 

Cultivation  After  Setting. — It  is  advisable,  particularly  if 
the  weather  is  dry,  to  run  the  cultivator  through  the  plantation 
just  as  soon  as  the  setting  is  finished.  The  need  of  this  is 
lessened  very  decidedly  if  the  men  in  setting  are  careful  to  leave 
a  little  loose  earth  about  each  plant.  But  since  this  cannot 
always  be  depended  on,  and  since  the  soil  between  the  rows  is 
always  tramped  down  rather  solidly,  it  is  safer  and  generally 
better  to  do  the  cultivating. 


QUESTIONS  241 


QUESTIONS 


1.  How  would  you  prepare  the  soil  for  a  currant  plantation? 

2.  How  far  apart  would  you  set  English  gooseberries?     American? 

3.  On   what   other   points   than   the   type   or   variety   does   the   best   dig 

tance  depend? 

4.  How  would  you  lay  off  the  land  for  such  a  plantation? 

5.  Would  you  set  currants  in  spring  or  fall?     Why? 

6.  How  would  you  prune  a  gooseberry  bush  for  setting? 

7.  Describe  the  setting  of  the  plants  in  a  currant  plantation. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

CULTURE  AND  FERTILIZING  OF  CURRANTS 

AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

Few  fruits  are  more  often  or  more  thoroughly  neglected 
than  currants  and  gooseberries  by  owners  of  garden  plots, 
and  even  by  the  commercial  grower,  and  yet  few  will  respond 
more  bountifully  to  really  good  treatment. 

Culture  Difficulties. — Starting  their  growth  as  they  do  very 
early  in  the  spring  the  season's  campaign  of  culture  ought  to 
start  equally  early  if  an  adequate  and  timely  supply  of  moisture 
and  plant  food  is  to  be  provided.  The  first  problem  each  season 
is  to  get  the  land  thoroughly  well  fitted  in  the  spring  and  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  solve  this  problem  satisfactorily.  Two  factors 
make  it  somewhat  more  difticult  than  with  most  other  fruits: 

First,  these  are  shallow-rooted  plants,  and  therefore  any 
very  deep  stirring  of  the  soil  is  not  desirable.  The  roots  may, 
of  course,  be  forced  to  go  somewhat  deeper  by  practicing  fairly 
deep  cultivation  from  the  start,  but  even  with  this  treatment  the 
roots  are  still  comparatively  near  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Second,  the  plants  are  not  usually  very  far  apart,  and  are 
always  rather  spreading  so  that  there  is  comparatively  little 
room  for  manipulating  whatever  implements  may  be  chosen  for 
the  work. 

Implements  for  Tillage. — Where  fairly  deep  stirring  is  de- 
sired, owing  to  having  considerable  material  to  turn  under,  or 
because  one  is  anxious  to  get  as  large  a  reservoir  as  possible  for 
holding  water,  the  gang  plow  shown  in  figure  2  is  the  best 
implement  to  use.  In  fact,  it  is  the  heaviest  implement  that 
ought  to  be  used  on  these  plantations  except  under  special  condi- 
tions. It  can  easily  be  run  at  a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  and 
this  is  deeper  than  is  ordinarily  desirable,  unless  it  might  be  in 
the  center  of  the  rows  and  where  the  plants  are  rather  widely 
spaced.  For  most  conditions  a  heavy-toothed,  V-shaped  culti- 
vator, such  as  is  shown  in  figure  9,  will  be  found  entirely 
242 


FREQUENT  SHALLOW  TILLAGE  243 

adequate  for  the  spring  preparation  of  the  currant  or  gooseberry 
plantation.  It  should  be  run  through  the  plantation  several 
times,  the  first  time  being  just  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  soil 
is  sufficiently  dry.  If  this  cultivator  is  run  through  the  rows 
twice,  lapping  it  well,  and  then  two  or  three  days  are  allowed  to 
go  by  before  the  next  working,  the  soil  which  has  been  loosened 
up  will  have  time  to  dry  out  a  little,  and  the  second  working  of 
it  will  bring  it  into  better  shape  than  if  the  same  amount  of 
labor  is  put  on  it  all  at  one  time.  Of  course,  this  presupposes 
that  the  soil  has  first  been  allowed  to  dry  out  until  it  is  in  the 
proper  condition  to  be  worked.  If  it  is  too  wet  for  working 
then  the  lapse  of  these  two  or  three  days  may  not  be  desirable, 
as  the  lumps  which  are  turned  up  may  bake  hard  and  be  more 
rather  than  less  difficult  to  pulverize  later.  In  case  the  gang 
plow  is  used  it  may  be  followed  by  this  heavy  cultivator. 

Frequent  Shallow  Tillage, — Later  cultivating  ought  to  be 
very  shallow,  and  it  is  best  done  with  a  spike-toothed  or  harrow 
type  of  cultivator  (Fig.  10).  It  should  be  frequent,  once  every 
week  or  ten  days,  even  though  there  may  be  no  weeds  to  contend 
with.  When  the  plantation  is  set  so  as  to  allow  of  cross-cultiva- 
tion the  great  bulk  of  the  work  can  be  done  with  the  horse,  but  a 
certain  amount  of  hand  hoeing  will  be  necessary  even  here ;  and 
where  cross-cultivation  cannot  be  done  considerably  more  hoeing 
will  be  needed.  The  older  the  plantation  the  more  of  this  hoe- 
ing it  will  be  necessary  to  do.  In  plantations  where  witch  gi-ass 
is  not  prevalent,  hoeing  is  rarely  a  serious  matter ;  where  witch 
gi'ass  does  get  a  finm  hold  it  is  a  question  whether  the  most  sen- 
sible thing  may  not  be  to  pull  the  plants  out  and  begin  again. 

The  ideal  should  be  to  keep  the  soil  from  getting  hard  and 
dry,  and,  of  course,  to  keep  it  free  from  weeds.  Whatever  cul- 
ture, either  with  hoes  or  cultivators,  may  be  necessary  to  secure 
this  ideal  must  be  given  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured 
from  the  plantation. 

After  the  crop  has  been  harvested  a  special  effort  should  be 
made  to  get  the  soil  thoroughly  worked  up  again  before  a  cover 
crop  is  sown.  In  this  campaign  the  large-toothed  cultivator  may 
well  be  used  again.    Follow  this  with  the  lighter  type. 


244  CULTURE  OF  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

The  cover  crop  is  exceptionally  important  in  these  planta- 
tions for  several  reasons,  and  ought  to  he  selected  with  unusual 
care.  To  hegin  with  the  soils  are  usually  rather  heavy  and  will 
therefore  need  as  large  an  amount  of  humus  as  possible.  There- 
fore a  large-growing  crop  should  he  chosen.  Then  since  the  crop 
of  fruit  is  harvested  rather  late,  the  date  of  sowing  is  therefore 
somewhat  delayed,  and  it  becomes  a  somewhat  difficult  question 
to  choose  a  crop  which,  starting  thus  late,  will  still  give  enough 
gi'owth  before  the  close  of  the  season.  Another  factor  which  one 
must  consider  is  that  no  cover  crop  should  be  used  which  is 
likely  to  become  established  close  about  the  plants  and  which 
therefore  will  require  much  hand  labor  to  subdue  it.  One  should 
have  a  crop  Avhich  starts  quickly,  as  the  checking  of  weeds  on  the 
plantation  is  of  unusual  importance,  as  compared  with  orchard 
fniits,  where  larger  implements  may  be  used  for  subduing 
the  weeds. 

All  these  requirements  are  difficult  to  satisfy;  in  fact,  they 
cannot  be  met  altogether,  but  some  mixture  of  cover  crops  will 
come  nearer  to  being  satisfactory  than  any  single  crop.  For  a 
large-growing  crop  to  supply  humus  and  smother  out  weeds 
probably  buckwheat  will  stand  at  the  head,  with  barley  as  a 
substitute  w^iich  may  be  used  with  a  good  degree  of  success.  Of 
course,  this  does  not  provide  for  any  nitrogen,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose some  clover  or  winter  vetch  probably  ought  to  be  added.  A 
half  bushel  to  a  bushel  of  buckwheat  or  barley  per  acre,  with  six 
or  eight  pounds  of  clover  seed,  or  ten  pounds  of  winter  vetch  seed 
added,  makes  an  excellent  combination.  When  the  soil  of  the 
plantation  is  well  supplied  with  the  seeds  of  large-growing  but 
easily-subdued  weeds,  such  as  the  various  types  of  large  pig- 
weeds (Amarantus  retroflexus  and  Chenopodium  album,  if  one 
is  botanically  minded),  the  buckwheat  or  the  barley  may  well  be 
omitted  from  the  above  mixture  and  the  weeds  allowed  to  take 
its  place. 

Mulching. — In  home  plantations,  or  occasionally  in  the 
smaller-sized  commercial  plantations,  some  method  of  mulching 
may  be  resorted  to  in  lieu  of  cultivation.  This  is  ordinarily  of 
rather  doubtful  value  for  several  reasons.     To  begin  with,  it 


DURATION  OF  THE  PLANTATION  245 

brings  the  feeding  roots,  and,  in  fact,  nearly  the  whole  root 
system,  very  close  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  in  seasons  of 
very  severe  drought  the  plants  are  pretty  sure  to  suffer  for 
moisture  in  spite  of  the  mulch.  Moreover,  it  is  generally  diffi- 
cult to  secure  a  sufficient  supply  of  whatever  material  is  adopted 
for  the  mulch,  so  that  the  covering  applied  is  apt  to  be  rather 
scant.  Then,  too,  the  cost  of  the  material  is  considerable  on  a 
plantation  of  any  size,  and  lastly,  the  mulch,  even  under  the 
best  of  conditions,  does  not  usually  perform  the  desired  func- 
tions as  well  as  cultivation  does.  With  all  this  against  it  the 
method  is  sometimes  used,  especially  on  home  plantations,  and 
for  this  purpose  the  best  materials  are  clean  straw  and  old  hay. 
If  possible  hay  or  straw  should  be  selected  which  candies  no  seeds 
of  weeds  that  are  likely  to  prove  troublesome  on  the  plantation. 

Duration  of  the  Plantation. — One  of  the  most  important 
questions  which  is  indirectly  tied  up  with  the  question  of  cul- 
tural methods  is  the  duration  of  the  plantation — the  length  of 
time  that  it  will  be  profitable  to  continue  it  (Fig.  131). 

Influence  of  Weeds. — Of  course,  the  principal  factor  in  the 
management  which  influences  this  duration  is  the  degree  to 
which  the  weeds  are  kept  in  subjection.  If  they  are  kept  thor- 
oughly subdued,  and  especially  if  enough  hoeing  is  done  so  that 
they  do  not  become  established  close  about  the  bushes,  then  the 
plantation  may  be  kept  for  many  years.  But  if  cultivation  is 
neglected,  and  if  witch  grass  or  some  such  weed  becomes  estab- 
lished in  the  plantation,  then  it  will  usually  be  found  best  and 
cheapest  to  pull  out  the  bushes  and  replant  on  new  ground. 

Influence  of  Type  of  Pruning. — Another  factor  which  has  a 
very  important  bearfng  on  the  duration  of  the  plantation  is  the 
t^-pe  of  pruning  that  is  practiced.  As  the  bushes  get  older  they 
throw  up  fewer  and  fewer  of  the  strong  young  shoots,  such  as 
are  shown  in  figures  133  and  13-1,  unless  some  special  effort  is 
made  to  induce  such  growth,  and  heavy  pruning  is  the  best 
method  to  encourage  growth  of  this  type.  Occasionally  it  may 
be  found  desirable  to  cut  away  the  bush  entirely  and  allow  the 
plant  to  grow  a  new  top,  but  ordinarily  it  is  only  necessary  to 


246  CULTURE  OF  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

practice  severe  pruning.  This  is  fully  discussed  under  the 
chapter  on  piiming. 

Influence  of  Diseases  and  Insects. — Another  factor  which  in- 
fluences very  decidedly  the  length  of  life  of  the  plantation  is  the 
gradual  increase  of  diseases  and  insects,  especially  the  former. 
If  these  are  kept  in  thorough  subjection  the  yields  and  quality 
of  fruit  may  be  kept  up  for  a  long  time,  while  if  they  are 
neglected  they  very  soon  render  it  unprofitable. 

Influence  of  Fertilizing. — A  last  factor  in  the  problem  is 
liberal  fertilizing,  to  which  we  shall  next  turn  for  a  full  discus- 
sion. As  a  result  of  these  four  factors — weeds,  pruning,  fertil- 
izing, and  pests,  and  the  degree  to  which  they  are  controlled  in 
the  interests  of  the  plants — we  find  that  the  life  of  a  plantation 
of  currants  or  gooseberries  will  vary  from  six  to  twelve  years. 
As  the  cost  of  replanting  is  not  serious,  and  as  the  plants  come 
into  bearing  quickly,  bearing  some  fruit  the  third  year  after  they 
are  set,  and  furthermore,  as  the  fruit  is  much  larger  and  better 
on  young  and  vigorous  plants,  the  practice  among  the  best 
growers  is  to  renew  at  the  shorter  rather  than  the  longer 
period  suggested. 

In  regard  to  fertilizing,  the  practice,  even  among  commercial 
growers,  varies  greatly,  particularly  on  the  side  of  nitrogen. 
Both  of  these  fruits  are  very  rank  feeders,  and,  unlike  many 
other  fruits,  are  not  easily  damaged  by  too  vigorous  a  growth; 
that  is,  they  are  not  made  more  liable  to  winter  injury  by  heavy 
growth,  and  they  do  not  gi-ow  wood  at  the  expense  of  fruit.  It 
is,  therefore,  safe  to  give  them  an  abundance  of  nitrogenous  fer- 
tilizer, especially  as  the  plantation  gets  older. 

Use  of  Manure. — Where  it  is  possible  to  secure  it,  barnyard 
manure  and  poultry  manure  ought  to  make  an  important  part 
of  the  annual  fertilizing.  This  is  preferably  applied  in  the 
autumn  or  winter,  unless  one  has  very  well-rotted  manure  avail- 
able, or  unless  the  land  is  so  sloping  as  to  endanger  serious  loss 
from  the  manure  washing  away.  A  fair  application  of  manure 
each  year  would  be,  say,  five  cubic  yards  per  acre.  If  this  can- 
not be  used  then  the  nitrogen  must  be  supplied  through  fer- 
tilizers, and  probably  a  combination  of  tankage  and  nitrate  of 


SOME  GOOD  APPLICATIONS  247 

soda  will  give  as  good  results  as  anything,  the  nitrate  furnishing 
the  nitrogen  for  the  first  start  in  the  spring,  and  the  more  slowly 
available  tankage  taking  care  of  the  later  growth. 

Some  Good  Applications. — The  following  are  three  for- 
mulas which  have  been  secured  from  practical  growers 
of  these  fruits : 

I.  Barnyard  manure 5  cubic  yards    (applied  in  autumn) 

Bone  meal    300  lbs. 

Wood  aslies    1000  lbs. 

II.  Sla^     800  lbs.     (applied    in    autumn) 

Tankage    300  lbs. 

Muriate  of  potasli   100  lbs. 

III.  Slag    GOO  lbs. 

High  grade  sulfate  of  potasli  300  lbs. 

Tankage    300  lbs. 

Xitrate  of  soda    100  lbs. 

The  fertilizers  are  best  applied  with  a  sower  and  should  be 
delivered  relatively  close  to  the  plants,  since  the  roots  of  these 
fruits  do  not  forage  widely. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  currants  and  gooseberries  generally  neglected  or  well  cared  for  in 

your  section? 

2.  Why  do  they  need  early  cultivation  ? 

3.  Describe  the  root  system  of  a  currant.     Did  you  ever  see  anything  to 

make  you  think  it  was  a  shallow- rooted  plant? 

4.  What    implements    would    you    use    for    cultivating    a    plantation    of 

these  fruits? 

5.  Outline  the  season's  cultivation  for  a  plantation  of  currants. 

6.  Would  you   use  a  cover  crop  with   tliese  fruits?     If  so,  what  one  in 

your  own  section? 

7.  What  would  you  consider  was  the  most  important  thing  that  this  crop 

would  do  for  the  plantation? 

8.  How  long  will  a  plantation  of  currants  usually  be  profitable?     AVhat 

are  the  principal  reasons  for  discarding  it? 

9.  How  can  you  prolong  the  life  of  a  gooseberry  plantation? 
10.  How  would  you  fertilize  a  plantation  of  these  fruits? 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

The  bearing  habit  of  the  currant  and  that  of  tho  goose- 
berry are  essentially  the  same,  and  therefore  the  pruning  is,  or 
ought  to  be,  very  much  the  same.  But  since  the  fruit  is  borne 
on  several  diiferent  types  of  wood  the  pnining  is  by  no  means  as 


Fig.  135. — Good  distribution  of  fruit  on  gooseberry  canes.    Note  side  spurs  well  loaded. 
The  previous  winter  this  cane  resembled  figure  136. 

exact  a  science  as  it  is  with  raspberries  or  with  grapes.  With  a 
raspberry  there  is  only  one  possible  place  for  the  fruit  to  grow, 
and  that  is  on  side  shoots  from  the  canes  which  grew  the  pre- 
vious season.  All  other  wood  can  therefore  be  ignored  in  our 
study  of  the  fruiting  system. 

Three  Types  of  Currant  Wood. — With  tho  currant,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  are  many  parts  of  the  plant  where  fniit  may 
248 


THREE  TYPES  OF  CURRANT  WOOD         249 

grow.  If  we  examine  a  reasonably  thrifty  cuiTant  bush  it 
will  usually  be  found  that  there  are  three  fairly  well-defined 
types  of  canes  on  it,  though  just  what  proportion  there  is  of 
each  type,  and  indeed,  whether  some  of  them  will  be  found  at 
all,  depends  on  the  previous  pruning  and  culture  which  the  bush 
has  received  (Figs.  135  and  13G). 

The  three  classes  represent  three  different  ages,  and  except 


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Fig.   136. — Good  fruiting  wood  of  the  gooseberry;  vigorous  buds,  long  orve-year  side  shoots, 
and  good  terminal  growth. 

for  the  first  class  no  well-defined  line  can  be  drawn  to  separate 
them  as  they  gradually  shade  into  one  another. 

1.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  the  strong  young  canes  which 
grew  the  previous  season  and  which  start  from  around  the 
cro^\^^  of  the  plant.  They  are  light  grayish  in  color  and  very 
straight  in  growth  with  fairly  long  nodes  or  joints  and  rather 
prominent  buds  (Fig.  133).  They  are  found  most  abundantly 
during  the  earlier  years  of  the  life  of  the  plant  and,  of  the  three 
classes  of  canes  mentioned  above,  are  the  most  likely  to  be  lack- 
ing altogether.     They  indicate  vigor  of  gi'owth,  and  anything 


250 


PRUNING  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 


ber  and  strength;  for  example,  severe  pruning  the  previous 
year,  thorough  cultivation,  or  the  abundant  application  of 
nitrogenous  fertilizers  all  tend  to  produce  them.  Usually  they 
bear  abundantly  the  following  season  (Fig.  137). 


Fig.  137. — Distribution  of  frviit  on  one-year  gooseberry  wood.    Large  and  abundant  fruit. 


Fig.  ij8. — Currant  wood  which  is  too  old  to  give  good  fruit.     Very  short  terminal  gruwt 


2.  In  the  second  place,  we  have,  at  the  other  extreme,  the 
very  old  canes  which  are  getting  past,  or  have  already  passed, 
their  usefulness.  The  bark  on  these  is  rough  and  black,  and 
whatever  fruit  they  bear  is  produced  on  spurs  and  short  branches 
along  their  sides,  which  have  usually  made  very  little  gi'owth 


THREE  TYPES  OF  CURRANT  WOOD 


251 


Fig.  I  jg. — Section  of  currant  cane  too  old  for  good  fruit.  Small  clusters  of  small  berries, 
and  few  and  small  leaves.  Also  black  bark  and  dead  spurs.  All  such  wood  should  be  cut  out 
in  pruning. 


? 


140. — Gooseberry 
dead  spurs. 


vood  that  is  too  old  for  good  fruit.     Note  short  growth  and  many 
Such  canes  should  be  cut  out  in  pruning. 


the  previous  season.  The  fruit  on  these  canes  is  poor,  the 
clusters  being  comparatively  few  and  small,  and  the  individual 
berries  small,  as  is  sho\\Ti  in  figures  138,  139  and  140. 


252  PRUNING  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 


Fig.    141. — Terminal  growth  on  a  young  and  vigorous  currant  cane.    Such  wood  will  produce 
an  abundance  of  fine  fruit.     Compare  with  figure  138. 


Fig.    142. — Fairly   good   bearing  wood   of   currant,    but  not  enough   growth    to    insure    the 
best  fruit. 


THREE  TYPES  OF  CURRANT  WOOD  253 

3.  The  third  class  of  canes  is  intci-mediate  between  these 
two  and  consists  of  a  lower  portion  with  strong  vigorous  side 
shoots  and  an  upper  straight  terminal  shoot  which  grew  last 
season.  The  bulk  of  the  fruit  on  any  bush  will  be  found  on 
this  class  of  canes,  some  of  it  being  found  on  last  year's  exten- 
sion at  the  top  of  the  cane,  much  of  it  on  the  side  spurs  and 


Fig.  143. — Distribution  of  fruit  on  a  one-year  section  of  a  currant  cane.  Note  thick 
clusters  of  bunches  at  junction  of  one  and  two-year  wood,  at  extreme  right  of  picture,  and 
also  at  outer  end  of  one-year  section  at  left. 

shoots,  and  almost  always  a  particularly  abundant  production 
just  at  the  union  of  the  one-year  and  two-year  wood  (Figs. 
141,  142  and  143). 

The  method  of  bearing  in  the  gooseberry  is  essentially  the 
same  as  in  the  currant.  There  are  two  minor  variations,  how- 
ever, which  are  w^orth  keeping  in  mind  in  studying  the  bearing 
method  and  in  doing  the  pruning.  One  is  that  the  first  class  of 
canes  mentioned,  the  straight,  one-year  growths,  is  much  less 
abundant,  and  consequently  a  less  important  part  of  the  bush; 


254 


PRUNING  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 


and  the  other  that  the  older  canes  continue  to  be  useful  much 
longer  than  with  currants.  This  value  of  the  older  canes  is  due 
^  to  the  fact  that  they  branch  more 
freely  and  the  branches  retain 
their  vigor  and  continue  extend- 
ing their  gro^vth  much  longer 
than  do  cun'ants.  Possibly  a 
third  difference  is  worth  record- 
ing and  that  is  that  the  goose- 
berry tends  to  make  a  much 
more  dense  gi-owth  from  the 
much  greater  abundance  of  side 
shoots. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
the  bearing  wood  on  these  two 
fruits  is  constantly,  and  rather 
rapidly,  getting  away  from  the 
crown  of  the  plant.  The  rate  of 
this  progression  can  be  gauged 
by  the  length  of  the  terminal 
growth  on  the  main  shoot  and 
side  branches.  In  practice  it  will 
be  found  that  after  three  years  the 
canes  gradually  lose  their  pro- 
ductiveness and  the  quality  of 
the  fruit  produced  gets  poorer. 
Among  our  best  growers,  there- 
fore, it  is  customary  to  have  no 
canes  older  than  three  years. 

When  to  Prune. — In  regard 
to  the  time  of  year,  for  pnining, 
it  makes  comparatively  little  dif- 
ference. The  principal  thing  to 
remember  is  that  both  these  fruits  start  growth  very  early  in 
the  spring  and  that  it  is  best  to  get  the  pruning  done  before 
growi;h  has  started  at  all.  Late  fall  and  very  early  spring  are,  all 
things  considered,  the  best  seasons  for  pruning,  though  occa- 


FlG.  144. — Currant  grown  in  tree 
form.  Not  used  commercially,  but  quite 
often  seen  in  gardens. 


WHAT  TO  PRUNE  OUT  255 

sionally  one  finds  a  grower  who  prunes  in  late  summer  after 
growth  is  over.  The  one  time  when  pruning  should  certainly 
not  be  done  is  just  as  gi-owth  is  starting,  since  at  that  time  one 
pulls  off  a  lot  of  the  expanding  buds  on  the  canes  that  are  left 
when  he  is  pulling  out  from  among  them  the  severed  canes. 

Number  of  Canes  to  Retain. — In  commercial  plantations  it 
is  customary  to  retain  from  four  or  five  to  eight  or  ten  canes  to  a 
bush.  Fomierly  there  was  considerable  favor  shown  the  single 
cane  or  low  tree  form  with  a  short  trunk  and  a  number  of  main 
branches  which  were  renewed  from  time  to  time  as  the  canes  of 
the  bush  form  are,  but  the  advent  of  the  currant  borer  has  pretty 
well  driven  this  method  out  of  use. 

The  Tree  Form. — A  type  of  bush  which  may  still  be  found 
in  amateur  plantations  but  which  has  little  but  novelty  to  com- 
mend it  is  the  extreme  tree  form  shown  in  figure  144.  This  is 
secured  by  growing  a  single  long  stalk  of  some  strong-growing 
speeies  like  Bihes  odoratum  to  the  desired  height,  say  three  feet, 
and  then  grafting  onto  this  the  desired  variety. 

Pruning  Tools. — The  only  tool  that  will  ordinarily  be  re- 
quired for  pruning  the  currant  is  a  good  pair  of  hand  shears  such 
as  is  shown  in  figure  165.  In  a  very  few  cases  the  butts  of  the 
canes  may  get  so  heavy  that  long,  two-handled  shears  like  those 
shown  in  figure  99  or  a  small  saw  (Fig.  166)  will  be  needed. 
For  gooseberries  the  work  will  certainly  be  done  more  comfort- 
ably if  the  long-handled  shears  are  used  for  taking  out  all  canes. 

The  principal  objects  in  pruning  are  the  following :  To  keep 
the  bushes  from  growing  too  high ;  to  keep  them  open  enough  to 
let  in  plenty  of  light  and  air ;  to  keep  up  a  supply  of  new  wood, 
and  to  get  rid  of  the  old  wood  that  has  passed  its  usefulness. 

What  to  Prune  Out. — The  following  outline  may  be  found 
convenient  in  deciding  what  ought  to  be  done : 

1.  Cut  back  the  very  vigorous,  one-year  shoots  that  come  up 
from  the  crown  or  start  from  the  tops  of  the  younger  canes. 
From  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  their  growth  may  be  taken  off 
to  advantage. 

2.  Take  out  altogether  the  oldest  canes.  Generally  all  canes 
that  are  over  three  years  old  are  removed. 


256  PRUNING  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 

3.  Take  out  altogether  auy  small,  weak,  one-year  canes  that 
have  come  up  from  the  crown.  Frequently  there  is  quite  a  crop 
of  these  and  they  serve  no  useful  purpose,  merely  thickening  up 
the  center  of  the  bush  and  rarely  bearing  any  fruit  whatever, 

4.  Remove  any  very  low-gTowing  canes  at  the  sides,  such  as 
are  shown  in  figure  131.  The  fruit  on  these  canes  is  seldom  of 
the  best,  and  as  the  fruit  nears  maturity  and  gets  heavier  the 
canes  are  sure  to  bend  down  to  the  ground  during  rain  storms 
and  the  fruit  get  badly  spattered  with  mud. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  three  types  of  wood  usually  found  on  a  currant  bush. 

2.  Where  do  you  find  the  best  fruit  on  a  currant  bush? 

3.  How  does  the  gooseberry  bear  its  fruit? 

4.  When  would  you  prune  these  fruits?     Why? 

5.  How  would  you  prune  a  bearing  currant  bush? 
G.  What  tools  are  needed  for  pruning  these  fruits? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

DISEASES  AND  INSECTS  OF  THE  CURRANT  AND 
GOOSEBERRY 

T^HiLE,  as  in  the  case  with  the  other  small  fruits,  the  list  of 
insects  and  diseases  attacking  the  currant  and  gooseberry  is  not 
as  formidable  as  that  of  the  apple  or  the  pear,  yet  it  is  a  suffi- 
ciently long  list,  and  the  pests  are  sufficiently  serious  to  cause 
the  gi'ower  of  these  fruits  very  serious  losses.  As  is  the  case  with 
most  other  fruits,  and  indeed  most  other  economic  plants,  a  very 
few  insects  and  a  very  few  diseases,  not  over  two  or  three  of  each, 
stand  out  preeminent  as  dangers  to  be  feared. 


In  a  work  of  this  kind  it  may  be  worth  while  to  discuss  only 
four  insects,  although  Slingerland  ^  describes  at  some  length 
thirteen,  and  in  addition  mentions  sixteen  others  which  may 
attack  these  fruits. 

Imported  Currant  Worm. — The  list  of  insects  may  very 
properly  be  headed  by  the  so-called  "  Imported  Currant  Worm," 
known  to  entomologists  as  Pteronus  ribesii.  Everyone  who  ever 
grew  currants  and  gooseberries  is  thoroughly  w^ell  acquainted 
with  this  insect,  for  it  is  very  nearly  omnipresent.  The  larval 
or  "caterpillar"  stage  (which  is  the  destructive  stage)  has  a 
habit  of  beginning  its  attacks  on  the  lower  leaves  where  it  is 
pretty  well  concealed,  and  then  as  the  worms  reach  a  larger  size 
and  develop  a  larger  appetite  suddenly  appearing  all  over  the 
bushes  and  completely  stripping  them  of  foliage  in  a  very  few 
days.  Owing  to  this  method  of  attack  it  is  almost  certain  to  get 
the  start  of  one  unless  the  spraying  is  kept  in  mind  and  an  appli- 
cation is  made  very  early  in  the  season. 

The  life  history  of  the  insect  is  briefly  as  follows :  The  adult 
insect,  which  is  known  as  a  saw-fly,  is  yellowish  and  black  in 
color  and  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  in  leng-th.     It  appears 

^"Manual  of  Fruit  Insects,"  Slingerland  and  Crosby. 

17  257 


258  INSECTS  OF  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 

early  in  the  spring,  and  the  female  deposits  the  long,  cylindrical 
eggs  iu  rows  along  the  large  veins  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves  and  mostly  on  the  lower  leaves  of  the  bushes.  They 
hatch  in  a  very  few  days ;  and  the  larA^ae,  which  are  greenish  with 
bUiek  spots,  at  once  begin  their  feeding  and  for  some  days  work 
in  groups.  At  first  they  merely  eat  holes  in  the  leaves,  but 
very  soon  they  begin  to  eat  the  entire  leaves  except  the  main 
ribs,  and  in  a  sui*prisingly  short  time  the  bush  is  stripped.  They 
pupate  in  trash  about  the  bushes ;  and  the  adults,  followed  by  a 
second  brood  of  worms,  usually  appear  about  July  1st.  The 
insect  passes  the  winter  in  the  pupa  stage,  these  hibernating  in- 
dividuals coming  from  this  second  brood  or  sometimes  from  a 
third  brood.  Of  course,  if  the  first  brood  is  entirely  destroyed 
the  trouble  is  usually  ended  for  that  plantation  and  that  season. 
But  by  the  next  season  adults  usually  come  over  from  some 
neighboring  plantation,  so  that  the  pest  is  with  the  grower  every 
year  for  one  brood  at  least. 

Spraying  early,  shortly  after  the  leaves  appear,  with  arsenate 
of  lead  at  the  rate  of  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  the  dry  form 
or  three  pounds  of  the  paste  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  is  the 
most  satisfactory  remedy. 

San  Jose  Scale. — The  second  insect  pest,  in  point  of  serious- 
ness, is  the  San  Jose  scale.  It  may  easily  head  the  list  if  one 
considers  the  permanence  of  the  injury  done,  because  if  it  is 
neglected  the  bushes  may  be  killed  outright  in  a  single  season 
or  so  badly  injured  that  they  are  worthless.  A  factor  which 
adds  greatly  to  the  seriousness  of  the  case  is  the  inconspicuous- 
ness  of  this  insect.  Often  the  first  intimation  that  the  owner 
has  of  any  trouble  is  the  poor  growth  that  his  bushes  are  mak- 
ing. On  examination  he  finds  them  literally  plastered  with 
these  little  gTay  scales.  They  are  difficult  enough  to  see  on  any 
plant,  but  especially  so  on  the  gray  bark  of  the  currant  and 
gooseberry.  The  insects  breed  continuously  throughout  the 
growing  season,  so  that  a  comparatively  light  infestation  in  the 
spring  may  develop  into  a  very  serious  one  by  autumn. 

Spraying  for  Scale. — The  only  way  to  handle  the  pest  satis- 
factorily is  to  spray  the  plantation  every  season  in  the  early 


THE  APHIS  259 

spring  with  lime-sulfur,  at  the  donnant  strength,  which  is  about 
one  gallon  of  the  concentrated  solution  to  eight  gallons  of  water. 

Currant  Borers. — Third  in  the  list  are  the  currant  borers, 
which  attack  the  canes  of  both  these  fruits,  though  they  are  more 
troublesome  on  the  currant.  There  are  two  foiTQs,  one  a  small, 
dark  blue  moth,  marked  wdth  yellow,  which  is  by  far  the  most 
serious,  and  the  other  a  small  bro\\^l  beetle.  But  the  work  of  the 
larvae  in  the  stems  is  almost  identical  and  they  may  often  be 
found  in  the  same  cane.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  canes,  and  the 
little  larvae,  on  hatching,  burrow  into  the  center  of  the  cane  and 
there  feed  on  the  pith,  sometimes  making  a  burrow  as  much  as  a 
foot  in  length.  In  both  cases  the  insect  winters  over  in  the 
pupa  stage  inside  the  cane,  and  emerges  the  following  May  or 
June.  The  canes  which  are  thus  attacked  put  out  a  sickly 
growth  the  following  spring  by  which  they  may  be  identified. 
These  canes  should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed  before  the  adult 
insects  emerge. 

The  Aphis. — The  fourth  insect  is  the  aphis,  which  is  almost 
certain  to  be  found  in  the  currant  plantation.  The  eggs  are 
black,  very  shiny,  and  are  oblong  in  shape.  They  will  be  found 
on  the  new  growth  attached  to  the  bark  of  the  canes  and  hatch 
soon  after  the  leaves  appear,  the  young  lice,  which  are  yellowish 
green  in  color,  crawling  to  the  leaves  and  feeding  on  the 
under  surface. 

The  insects  which  hatch  from  the  eggs  are  wingless  females, 
which  very  soon  begin  to  produce  other  similar  females.  These 
are  born  alive  and  soon  reproduce  others,  so  that  in  a  very  short 
time  the  leaves  are  covered  on  the  imder  surface.  Later  in  the 
season  winged  females  are  produced  w^hich  go  to  other  plants, 
and  still  later  both  males  and  females.  The  latter  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  twigs  to  pass  the  winter.  These  hatch  the  following 
spring  as  already  suggested. 

Being  a  sucking  insect,  the  feeding  is  done  by  puncturing 
the  leaves  and  sucking  the  juices.  This  soon  causes  the  leaves 
to  begin  to  curl  up  and  wrinkle  until  they  are  very  greatly  dis- 
torted (Fig.  145).  Soon  this  wrinkled  area  begins  to  change 
to  a  yellowish  and  finallv  to  a  brownish  or  even  a  reddish  color. 


260 


DISEASES  OF  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 


Leaves  which  are  badly  attacked  usually  fall,  and  in  any  case 
their  function  is  so  seriously  interfered  with  that  the  fruit  does 
not  mature  well.  In  addition,  the  fruit  becomes  coated  by  the 
honey-dew  given  off  by  the  lice.  This  is  later  attacked  by  a 
fungus  which  turns  it  black,  thereby  injuring  its  appearance 
and  sale. 

Control  of  the  Aphis. — The  insect  is  difficult  to  control. 


Fig.   145. — Leaves  attacked  by  the  currant  aphis.    Such  leaves  often  become  brown  and  fall. 

Spraying  with  some  contact  poison,  such  as  nicotine  sidfate  or 
soap  solutions,  is  the  most  approved  method  of  attack,  but  to  be 
successful  it  must  be  done  early  and  thoroughly,  else  the  leaves 
will  become  so  much  curled  that  one  cannot  reach  the  insects 
with  the  spray. 

Currant  Maggots. — These  are  the  larvae  of  small  flies  (Epo- 
chra  canadensis).  They  attack  the  fruits  of  all  types  of  cur- 
rants and  occasionally  infest  gooseberries.  In  some  western 
states  these  pests  are  so  serious  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  ATTACKS  261 

currants.  The  fruit  is  useless  because  of  the  maggots  in  them. 
The  larvae  come  to  full  growth  as  the  berries  mature.  This 
causes  the  fruit  to  fall  to  the  ground.  The  maggots  form  pupae 
in  the  soil.  The  best  remedy  is  to  destroy  the  insects  by  some 
means.  Remove  the  soil  for  several  inches  and  spread  it  where 
swine  or  poultry  can  destroy  the  larvae  and  pupae.  Hens  scratch- 
ing under  the  bushes  will  aid  in  destroying  these  pests. 


Mildew. — Turning  next  to  fungous  diseases,  we  find  the 
mildew  by  far  the  most  serious  of  them  all,  particularly  with 
the  gooselseri-y.  It  is  an  American  disease  and  doubtless  for 
this  reason  the  American  varieties,  as  Downing  and  Pearl,  are 
much  less  susceptible  to  its  attacks.  In  fact,  it  is  not  usually  a 
serious  disease  with  them.  On  the  other  hand,  the  European 
varieties,  as  Industry  and  Crown  Bob,  are  very  seriously  at- 
tacked, and  the  introduction  of  this  disease  into  the  European 
plantations  has,  in  some  cases,  almost  annihilated  them.  This, 
of  course,  is  a  very  common  phenomenon- — a  pest  which  is  a 
comparatively  insignificant  one  in  its  native  habitat  when  intro- 
duced into  a  new  country  spreading  with  great  rapidity 
and  virulence.  The  disease  is  less  troublesome  in  the  North  than 
in  the  South,  as  might  be  expected. 

Character  of  the  Attacks. — It  is  an  interesting  disease,  sci- 
entifically, and  to  the  man  w^ho  does  not  own  the  plantation  which 
is  attacked.  It  attacks  first  the  young,  expanding  shoots  and 
leaves,  spreading  later  to  the  growing  fruit.  The  disease  is 
mostly  external,  appearing  at  the  beginning  as  small  patches  of 
threads  closely  woven  together,  forming  a  "  cobwebby  "  appear- 
ance. These  patches  increase  in  size  and  may  eventually  run 
together  forming  large  diseased  areas.  They  also  increase  in 
thickness  at  the  centers,  fonning  quite  a  mat  of  threads,  but 
spreading  out  at  the  edges  into  a  very  thin  coating.  Soon  it 
begins  to  tuni  whitish  from  the  production  of  the  summer  spores, 
known  technically  as  conidial  spores.  These  are  produced  in 
great  numbers  and  help  to  spread  the  disease  to  other  parts  of 
the  plant  and  to  other  plants.     Later  on  the  diseased  areas  turn 


262 


DISEASES  OF  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 


brown  and  in  their  centers  the  winter  or  asco-spores  are  devel- 
oped which  carry  the  disease  over  until  the  following  spring. 

The  growth  of  the  shoots,  leaves  and  berries  which  are  at- 
tacked is,  of  course,  seriously  interfered  with  or  stopped  alto- 
gether, and  the  fruits  which  are  not  so  badly  attacked  as  to  be 
worthless  as  food  are  nevertheless  so  unsightly  as  to  be 
entirely  unsalable. 

Control. — The  disease  can  be  fairly  well  controlled  by  thor- 
ough and  repeated  spraying.  Potassium  sulfide,  or  liver  of 
sulfur,  has  proved  to  be  the  most  efficient  spray  material  for 


Fig.   146. — Knapsack  sprayer  at  work  in  currants  and  gooseberries.      An  excellent  outfit  for 
small  plantations  of  these  fruits,  being  convenient  to  use  among  the  bushes. 

this  disease.  The  first  application  should  be  made  just  as  the 
buds  are  well  broken  open,  using  it  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  to 
two  gallons  of  water.  From  this  time  on  applications  should  be 
made  at  intervals  of  from  ten  days  to  two  weeks  until  three  to 
six  applications  have  been  made,  depending  on  the  severity  of 
the  attack.  Lime-sulfur  has  also  proved  reasonably  satisfactory, 
applied  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  of  the  concentrate  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water  (Fig.  140). 

The  currant  and  gooseberry  leaf  spot  is  another  disease  that 
is  frequently  a  serious  one,  sometimes  causing  the  leaves  to  turn 
yellow  and  fall,  thereby  seriously  interfering  with  the  health  of 
the  plants.    It  appears  as  rather  large  spots,  brownish  or  grayish 


REMEDIES  263 

in  color,  with  a  number  of  minute  blackish  specks  developing 
later  in  the  center  of  each  spot.  It  is  almost  always  present  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  in  the  plantation,  and  nearly  all  varieties 
of  both  currants  and  gooseberries  are  attacked  by  it. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  the  most  generally  recommended  fungi- 
cide for  this  disease.  The  first  application  should  be  given  just 
as  soon  as  the  leaves  are  fully  expanded,  and  it  should  be  re- 
peated at  intervals  of  ten  days  to  two  weeks  until  two  to  six 
applications  are  made.  Lime-sulfur  at  the  same  rate  suggested 
for  mildew  is  also  promising  and  where  it  is  successful  its  use, 
of  course,  simplifies  the  spraying  program. 

Anthracnose. — A  closely  allied  disease  in  its  manner  of 
attack  on  the  leaves  is  the  anthracnose,  though  it  also  attacks  the 
canes,  the  ben-ies,  and  the  fruit  and  leaf  stalks.  The  disease 
usually  appeai-s  first,  or  at  least  is  noticed  first,  on  the  leaves, 
where  it  produces  small  brown  spots  which  are  round  in  out- 
line and  in  the  center  of  which  a  small  black  spot  develops  later. 
The  leaves,  if  badly  attacked,  soon  turn  yellow  and  fall.  Fre- 
quently the  bushes  are  practically  defoliated.  On  the  stems  and 
fruit  the  disease  appears  as  small,  black,  sunken  spots. 

Varieties  vary  considerably  in  their  degree  of  susceptibility 
and  the  currant  is  more  likely  to  be  attacked  than  the  gooseberry. 

Remedies. — The  most  satisfactory  remedies  are  Bordeaux 
mixture  and  lime-sulfur,  the  latter  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  to 
forty  gallons  of  water.  The  first  application  should  be  made  as 
the  leaves  are  appearing,  and  after  that  at  periods  of  about  two 
weeks  until  four  to  six  applications  have  been  made.  In  sec- 
tions where  the  disease  is  especially  troublesome,  or  in  seasons 
when  it  has  been  very  plentiful,  it  may  be  best  to  make  one  spray- 
ing after  the  fruit  is  harvested. 

Cane  blight  is  one  of  those  diseases  for  which  no  entirely 
satisfactory  remedy  has  been  worked  out.  The  first  evidence 
of  its  presence  is  a  wilting  of  the  leaves  on  one  or  more  canes, 
or  perhaps  on  only  certain  branches  of  the  canes.  Later  the 
entire  cane  may  die  and  perhaps  eventually  the  whole  bush. 
The  fungus  causing  this  disease  works  in  the  bark,  wood,  and 
pith,  causing  the  death  of  a  section  of  the  stem.  This,  of  course, 
cuts  off  the  movement  of  sap  up  the  cane ;  all  those  parts  above 


264  DISEASES  OF  CURRANT  AND  GOOSEBERRY 

this  girdle  of  dead  tissues  are  killed,  the  leaves  wilting  and  even- 
tually dying.  It  is  usually  possible  on  splitting  open  the  cane  at 
this  diseased  point  to  detect  the  whitish  threads  of  the  fungus. 

The  only  remedy  suggested  is  cutting  out  the  diseased  canes, 
and  this  ought  always  to  be  done.  But  even  with  the  utmost  care 
in  this  regard  it  is  not  usually  possible  to  completely  eradicate 
the  disease,  and  it  gradually  weakens  the  bushes  and  reduces 
the  yields  until  the  plantation  has  to  be  abandoned. 

Pine  Blister  Rust. — A  last  fungous  disease  w4iich  ought  to  be 
mentioned,  not  so  much  for  its  direct  injuiy  to  the  plantation  as 
for  its  indirect,  is  the  pine  blister  rust. 

This  is  one  of  those  curious  fungous  plants  which  passes  a 
part  of  its  life  cycle  on  one  plant  and  a  part  on  another.  In 
this  case  it  is  the  white  pine,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  currant 
and  gooseberry  on  the  other.  It  is  considered  a  very  serious 
disease  on  the  pine,  and  in  sections  where  this  tree  is  important 
a  move  has  been  made  to  pull  out  and  destroy  all  affected  cur- 
rant and  gooseberry  plants,  and  new  bushes  should  not  be 
planted.  It  is  too  soon  to  say  just  how  serious  the  disease 
may  be  on  these  fruits,  but  the  destruction  of  them  to  save  the 
pines  is  certainly  a  serious  matter.  The  spread  of  the  disease 
among  white  pines  may  greatly  limit  the  planting  of  currants 
and  gooseberries. 

QUESTIOXS 

1.  How  do  the  diseases  of  the  currant  compare  with  those  of  the  apple? 

2.  Describe  the  currant  M'orm.     How  would  you  fight  it? 

3.  Did  you  ever  see  a  currant  bush  killed  by  the  San  Jose  scale  ?   Describe 

this  scale. 

4.  How  would  you  make  sure  that  the  San  Jose  scale  didn't  injure  your 

currant  plantation? 

5.  Describe  the  currant  borer  and  tell  how  to  control  it. 

6.  Describe  the  work  of  the  aphis  on  currants. 

7.  Discuss  the  niildeAv  of  these  fruits. 

8.  What  does  the  currant  leaf-spot  look  like?    How  would  you.  control  it? 

9.  Describe  the  anthracnose  of  these  fruits. 

10.  What  is  the  most  serious  insect  attackinfj  these  fruits  in  your  section? 

Have  you  seen  it  at  work  ?    What  ought  to  be  done  to  best  control  it  ? 

11.  Is   the   white-pine   blister   rust   common   in  your   section?      How  is  it 

related  to  currant  growing? 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  CURRANTS 
AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

These  subjects  must  be  discussed  separately,  since  the 
methods  in  vogue  for  gooseberries  are  quite  different  from  those 
in  use  with  currants. 

Degree  of  Ripeness  of  Currants. — Like  most  other  fniits, 
the  degree  of  ripeness  which  is  desirable  with  the  currant  varies 
with  the  distance  to  market  and  with  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to  be 
put.  For  distant  markets,  when  the  fruit  is  to  be  shipped  by 
express,  it  should  be  picked  while  the  berries  are  still  firm,  and 
some  may  even  be  so  unripe  as  to  be  greenish  in  color.  For 
nearby  markets  a  considerably  greater  degree  of  ripeness  is 
allowable  and  even  desirable.  There  is  a  very  strong  prejudice 
with  most  housewives,  in  favor  of  decidedly  unripe  currants  for 
making  jelly,  because  they  jell  better  and  because  the  jelly  is 
lighter  in  color  and  clearer.  It  is  quite  a  question  with  the 
writer  whether  this  prejudice  is  warranted.  If  quality  and  not 
appearance  is  the  test,  probably  nine  people  out  of  ten  would 
vote  for  the  jelly  made  from  ripe  currants. 

In  the  operation  of  picking  the  currant  two  things  ought  to 
be  insisted  on  if  the  fruit  is  to  land  on  the  market  in  good  condi- 
tion. In  the  first  place,  the  stems  should  always  be  picked  with 
the  berries  and  not  left  attached  to  the  bushes.  Berries  which 
are  pulled  off  the  stems  are  of  little  value  except  for  very  nearby 
markets  to  which  they  can  be  sent  immediately,  and  where  they 
will  be  used  at  once. 

In  the  second  place,  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  crush 
the  berries,  for  even  when  the  picker  does  not  pull  them  off  the 
stems  he  often  bruises  them  so  that  they  will  very  quickly  spoil. 
Moreover,  the  loss  is  not  confined  to  the  berries  so  bniised,  but  a 
few  such  berries  in  a  box  will  start  trouble  and  very  soon  the 
whole  box  is  ruined. 

To  be  sure  that  these  two  conditions  are  obsen^ed  bv  the 

265 


266 


HARVESTING  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 


pickers  requires  constant  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  fore- 
man. The  boxes  must  be  frequently  examined  as  brought  in  by 
the  pickers  and  any  loose  or  bi^uised  berries  called  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  delinquent  picker  (Fig.  147).  The  rules  are  easier 
to  observe  with  some  varieties  than  with  others,  owing  to  the 
difference  in  the  length  of  stems  in  the  clusters.  Where  the 
stem  is  long  it  is  easy  for  the  picker  to  get  hold  of  it  without 
bruising  the  berries ;  where  it  is  very  short,  as  it  is  with  some 
varieties,  it  is  much  more  difficult. 


Fig.   147. — Pickers  at  work  in  currant  plantation.    A  few  women  in  the  gang  will  steady  the 
work  of  the  whole  force. 


It  is  also  imjjerative  that  the  fruit  be  dry  when  picked  and 
packed,  otherwise  it  is  almost  certain  to  spoil  in  transit.  Of 
course,  a  combination  of  wet  and  bruised  ben-ies  is  the  worst 
one  possible. 

Picking  Gooseberries. — In  the  picking  of  gooseberries  the 
case  is  quite  different.  The  fruit  is  naturally  very  firm  and  is 
usually  picked  while  quite  green  and  hard,  so  that  there  is  very 
little  danger  of  its  being  bruised  in  handling.  But  the  thorny 
nature  of  the  bushes  makes  the  picking  a  very  unpleasant  task 
for  the  operator,  so  that  everything  possible  ought  to  be  done  to 


BASKETS  AND  CRATES  267 

protect  him.  To  begin  with,  the  bushes  ought  to  be  pruned,  so 
that  they  maj  be  kept  as  open  as  possible  to  allow  room  for 
getting  at  the  fruit.  Then  it  is  usually  best  to  have  the  pickers 
wear  gloves,  heavy  leather  ones  being  best,  so  that  the  hands 
may  be  protected.  Even  under  the  best  of  conditions,  however, 
it  is  not  a  popular  kind  of  work. 

With  the  rough  handling  that  is  almost  unavoidable  in  pick- 
ing gooseberries,  a  great  many  leaves  will  be  stripped  olf  with 
the  fruit,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  on  commercial  planta- 
tions to  run  the  berries  through  an  ordinary  fanning  mill  in 
order  to  get  out  the  leaves  and  trash. 

Green  or  Ripe  Gooseberries. — It  might  be  said  in  passing 
that  the  practice  of  picking  gooseberries  so  long  before  they  are 
ripe  is  a  questionable  one.  It  is  not  a  very  popular  fruit  at 
best,  and  it  is  quite  a  question  whether  it  will  increase  much  in 
popularity  so  long  as  this  2>ractice  of  picking  it  while  still  de- 
cidedly unripe  is  continued.  One  might  as  well  expect  to  pick  a 
Mcintosh  apple  in  August,  and  have  his  customers  enthuse  over 
its  quality,  as  to  sell  green  gooseberries  and  have  the  consumer 
anxious  to  get  more.  When  fully  ripe,  gooseberries  are  really 
very  delicious,  especially  the  large  English  varieties,  and  while 
it  will  cost  more  to  handle  them  when  ripe,  owing  to  the  greater 
care  necessary,  yet  this  practice  probably  offers  the  most  hopeful 
field  to  the  man  who  really  wants  to  popularize  the  gooseberry. 
The  only  serious  objection  to  allowing  gooseberries  to  become 
ripe  before  they  are  picked  is  the  fact  that  the  seeds  become 
hard  and  woody.  This  is  a  more  serious  objection  with  some 
consumers  than  with  others,  however,  and  those  who  are  really 
fond  of  gooseberries  will  put  up  with  it  for  the  sake  of  the 
better  flavor  secured. 

Baskets  and  Crates. — For  local  markets,  or  for  any  trade  in 
these  two  fruits  where  they  are  to  be  used  by  the  housewife,  they 
are  usually  handled  either  in  the  ordinary  quart  baskets,  as  other 
berries  are,  or  else  in  the  climax  grape  basket.  The  quart  bas- 
kets are  packed  in  crates,  the  thirty-two-quart  size  being  the  most 
popular  (Fig.  79),  though  smaller  and  larger  crates  are  some- 
times used.     If  the  grape  baskets  are  used  the  nine  and  ten- 


268  HARVESTING  CURRANTS  AND  GOOSEBERRIES 

pound  sizes  are  the  most  popular  and,  in  fact,  have  much  to  com- 
mend them  from  the  standpoint  of  both  producer  and  consumer. 
When  the  fruit  is  to  go  to  factories  it  is  generally  handled  in 
larger  packages,  nothing  smaller  than  climax  baskets  being  used, 
and  very  frequently  half  bushel  and  even  bushel  boxes.  Of 
course,  gooseberries,  owing  to  their  firmer  texture,  can  be  handled 
in  somewhat  larger  packages  than  currants. 


Currants  are  used  most  largely  for  jellies;  in  fact,  this  is 
the  only  use  to  which  they  are  put  in  the  average  household. 
For  this  purpose,  as  already  suggested,  most  housewives  prefer 
that  the  currants  should  be  decidedly  unripe,  thinking  that  they 
will  not  jell  well  when  ripe.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  will 
jell  in  a  perfectly  satisfactory  manner  so  long  as  they  are  not 
overripe,  and  the  quality  of  the  jelly  will  improve  very  de- 
cidedly as  the  currants  pass  from  the  unripe  to  the  perfectly 
ripe  stage.  Moreover,  the  currants  are,  of  course,  more  attrac- 
tive when  they  are  ripe,  on  account  of  the  better  color.  If  con- 
sumers could  be  educated  up  to  the  point  of  appreciating  that 
ripe  currants  \vill  jell  satisfactorily  it  would  undoubtedly  help 
the  trade  in  this  fniit. 

Pies  and  Sauce. — In  addition  to  being  used  for  jelly  making, 
currants  are  occasionally  used  in  their  season  for  pies  and  sauce, 
or  are  canned  for  winter  use. 

As  Ripe  Fruit. — Another  use  to  which  they  are  occasionally 
put,  and  which  ought  to  be  more  general,  is  as  a  dessert  fruit  in 
the  fresh  condition.  Some  of  the  milder-flavored  varieties,  as 
the  Perfection  among  reds,  and  the  White  Grape  among  whites, 
are  especially  to  be  commended  for  this  purpose.  They  will 
hang  on  the  bushes  for  a  long  time  and  hold  their  quality  re- 
markably, in  fact,  improving  in  quality  for  many  days  after  the 
commercial  harvesting  is  over.  This  is  a  use  of  the  fruit  which 
is  worthy  of  encouragement  by  progressive  growers  as  there  is  no 
reason  why  a  continuous  market  for  ripe  currants  in  limited 
quantities  might  not  be  developed  in  any  local  market  if  con- 
sumers could  be  educated   to  an  appreciation   of  them.     Of 


SPICED  CURRANTS  269 

course,  they  are  decidedly  tart  and  they  are  seedy,  but  the 
former  characteristic  is  refreshing  and  one  becomes  accustomed 
to  the  latter. 

Spiced  Currants. — One  other  i7se  for  currants  ought  to  be 
urged  by  the  grower  who  is  trying  to  develop  his  market  to  the 
greatest  extent,  and  this  is  as  spiced  currants  to  be  eaten  with 
meats.  They  certainly  are  delicious  and  will  appeal  to  most 
people  once  they  are  introduced. 

Gooseberries  are  much  less  commonly  used  than  are  cur- 
rants ;  in  fact,  the  demand  in  any  locality  is  strictly  limited. 
The  percentage  of  them  which  is  used  in  the  household,  as  com- 
pared with  those  used  in  factories  is  much  less.  Consumers 
seem  much  more  inclined  to  buy  their  gooseberries  already  put 
up  than  they  are  their  currants. 

And  yet  if  properly  handled  in  picking  and  in  canning  and 
preserving,  the  gooseberry  is  a  really  delicious  fruit.  Its  most 
popular  end  seems  to  be  as  a  preserve,  yet  it  makes  a  delicious 
jelly,  it  may  be  canned  for  future  use,  and  gooseberry  pies  are 
very  popular  where  they  are  known,  coming,  as  they  do,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fruit  season,  while  our  appetites  for  new  fruits 
are  still  keen. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  ripe  should  currants  be  when  picked? 

2.  Describe  the  operation  of  picking  currants. 

3.  What  is  the  best  waj^  to  pick  gooseberries? 

4.  How   ripe   should  gooseberries   be   allowed   to   become   before   they  are 

picked? 

5.  What  type  of  crate  is  most  commonly  used  for  currants  and  gooseberries? 

6.  What  baskets  are  used  ? 

7.  What  are  the  principal  ways  in  which  currants  are  used? 

8.  How  are  gooseberries  used? 


GRAPES 


\ 


/ 


CHAPTER  XXX 
SITES  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  VINEYARD 

The  most  important  single  question  to  consider  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  site  for  a  vineyard,  and  the  most  important  single 
factor  in  bringing  certain  regions  into  prominence  as  grape- 
growing  sections,  is  temperature.  Other  matters,  such  as  soils, 
rainfall,  and  fertilizers,  are  all  of  them  important,  and  many  of 
them  extremely  so,  but  they  are  none  of  them  as  vital  as  tem- 
perature. The  yield  from  a  vineyard  may  suffer  because  the 
soil  is  not  just  the  right  type,  or  because  it  lacks  fertility,  but  if 
the  temperature  in  the  vineyard  drops  low  enough  on  a  single 
night  to  give  a  heavy  frost  the  whole  crop  may  be  a  total  loss. 

Best  Temperatures. — It  is  desirable  to  have  an  even  tempera- 
ture for  the  growing  season,  since  sudden  and  extreme  changes 
are  likely  to  affect  the  grape  unfavorably.  It  has  been  shown 
that  an  average  mean  temperature  of  55  degrees  for  April,  May, 
and  June,  which  are  the  months  during  which  the  grape  makes 
its  most  rapid  growth,  and  a  mean  temperature  of  65  degrees 
for  the  maturing  months  of  July,  August,  and  September,  are 
likely  to  give  the  most  satisfactory  conditions  for  regular  and 
abundant  crops. 

Factors  that  Affect  the  Temperature.  Latitude. — The  first 
and  most  important  factor  influencing  temperature  is,  of  course, 
latitude ;  and  this  is  one  reason  why  we  find  the  great  grape- 
gTowing  regions  of  the  country  centered  in  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio. 

Altitude. — Xext  to  this  would  stand  altitude,  bott  general 
and  local.  An  elevated  section  gets  a  lower  mean  temperature 
than  a  low-lying  region  in  the  same  latitude ;  while  local  eleva- 
tions, if  they  are  not  too  extreme,  give  the  site  immunity  from 
frost,  which  is,  of  course,  an  extremely  important  matter.  This 
immunity  from  frosts  is  brought  about  by  the  atmospheric 
drainage  which  such  a  location  gives,  the  cold  air  draining  away 
to  the  lower  levels,  and  it  is  surprising  what  a  slight  slope  is 
necessary  to  thus  drain  away  the  cold  air. 

18  273 


274  SITES  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  VINEYARD 

Lakes  and  Rivers. — Another  extremely  important  factor  in 
determining  the  temperature  of  a  section  is  the  influence  of  lakes 
and  rivers.  This  influence  is  always  on  the  side  of  reducing 
danger  from  frosts.  In  the  spring  the  water  tends  to  keep  the 
air  cooler,  and  consequently  the  vines  are  less  likely  to  start  into 
growth  until  danger  from  frosts  is  past ;  and  in  the  autumn  the 
water  keeps  the  air  warmer  and  so  prevents  the  occurrence  of 
frosts  until  long  after  they  have  occurred  in  other  sections  of 
the  same  latitude  but  which  are  unaft'ected  by  the  lake  or  river. 
In  almost  all  cases,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  the  influence 
of  lakes  and  rivers  is  in  the  right  direction ;  they  are  strictly 
beneficial.  The  only  exception  would  be  in  the  case  of  very 
large  lakes  which  sometimes  so  prolong  the  growing  season  of 
the  vineyard  that  the  fruit  does  not  mature  well. 

The  effect  of  rivers  is,  of  course,  far  less  pronounced  than 
that  of  lakes,  yet  it  is  often  surprising  how  much  influence  a 
stream  will  have  upon  frosts.  This  influence  is  exerted  in  two 
ways.  In  the  first  place,  the  cold  air  of  adjoining  fields  tends 
to  drain  into  the  river  and  be  carried  away.  And  in  the  second 
place  the  water  of  the  stream  tends  to  make  the  surrounding  air 
more  moist  as  well  as  warmer  in  the  autumn,  and  so  prevent  the 
occurrence  of  frosts  on  nearby  fields,  when  they  may  be  severe 
on  lands  beyond  the  influence  of  the  river. 

Winds  are  also  important  in  their  influence  upon  tempera- 
ture as  well  as  in  several  other  ways.  As  a  rule,  winds  are  not 
beneficial  to  vineyards.  They  dry  out  the  soil,  injure  the  vines, 
damage  the  fruit,  and  break  down  the  trellis.  The  principal 
exception  to  this  rule  is  their  effect  on  fungous  diseases,  and  in 
some  sections  winds  are  credited,  and  no  doubt  properly  so,  with 
assisting  very  decidedly  in  keeping  in  check  the  diseases  of  the 
vineyard  by  keeping  the  foliage  dry  so  that  disease  germs  do  not 
as  readily  germinate,  and  the  air  reasonably  dry  so  that  it  is  not 
as  favorable  io  the  development  of  the  fungus  after  it  has 
started  to  grow. 

Exposure  and  Slope. — A  last  factor  which  influences  tem- 
perature is  the  exposure  of  the  vineyard.  Many  growers  prefer 
a  southern  or  southeastern  exposure,  largely  on  account  of  the 
higher  mean  temperature,  though  it  may  have  other  advantages, 


FACTORS  AFFECTING  SOIL  TEMPERATURES  275 

and  the  importance  of  this  point  increases  as  one  gets  farther 
north.  It  may  be  possible  to  bring  grapes  to  perfect  maturity 
and  fine  quality  in  a  sheltered  location  with  a  sharp  southern 
exposure,  while  on  immediately  adjoining  lands  without  these 
advantages  they  cannot  be  gi'own  with  any  degree  of  success. 

Of  course,  the  objection  to  a  steep  slope  is  that  it  increases 
so  seriously  the  damage  from  the  washing  of  the  soil,  and  usu- 
ally this  single  objection  is  sufficient  reason  for  not  selecting 
such  a  site  for  a  commercial  vineyard.  This  would  not  be 
serious,  however,  for  a  small  home  vineyard,  and  such  a  site  is 
often  selected.  As  one  approaches  the  northern  limit  of  suc- 
cessful grape  culture,  the  foregoing  considerations  become  more 
and  more  important,  while  as  one  goes  farther  south  they  be- 
come less  important,  until  one  reaches  a  point  where  high  eleva- 
tions are  desirable  because  they  are  cooler,  and  where  northern 
rather  than  southern  exposures  may  be  preferred. 

The  ideal  location  (Fig.  148)  for  the  vineyard  would  there- 
fore be  on  gently  rolling  lands,  as  a  nile,  except  where  there  is 
a  very  decided  influence  from  a  lake. 

Soils  for  Grapes. — Turning  now  to  a  consideration  of  soils, 
we  find  that  many  types  may  be  used  successfully  if  they  are 
handled  in  the  best  manner,  and  if  the  right  varieties  are  selected 
for  each  particular  soil. 

As  a  general  rule,  wann  soils  with  some  gravel  in  them  are 
desirable,  because  soil  heat  is  almost  as  important  as  the  heat 
of  the  air  in  promoting  the  gi-owth  of  the  vines  and  in  hastening 
the  maturity  of  the  fruit.  With  this  idea  in  mind,  therefore,  as 
the  chief  consideration,  one  would  select  sandy  or  gravelly  loams, 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  stone  and  shale  might  even  be 
admitted  as  tending  to  increase  soil  temperatures.  On  such 
soils  one  would  be  most  certain  of  being  able  to  mature  his  crop 
of  fruit,  and  if  the  soil  were  fertile  as  well  as  wann,  the  maxi- 
mum crops  of  fruit  could  probably  be  produced. 

Factors  Affecting  Soil  Temperatures. — In  addition  to  the 
natural  character  of  the  soil  (whether  clay,  silt,  or  sand)  the 
temperature  of  the  soil  may  be  influenced  in  many  ways,  the 
principal  ones  being  the  following : 

1.  Drainage,— This  is  the  most  important  single  factor  out- 


276 


SITES  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  VINEYARD 


INFLUENCE  OF  HEAVY  SOILS  277 

side  of  the  natural  type  of  the  soil.  In  some  cases  it  may  even 
exert  a  greater  influence  than  the  type  of  soil.  One  cannot 
expect  to  have  a  warm  soil  if  it  is  a  wet  one,  as  the  two  do  not 
go  together.  It  takes  five  times  as  much  heat  to  raise  a  certain 
bulk  of  water  ten  degrees  in  temperature  as  it  does  an  equal 
amount  of  sand.  And  there  are  many  other  things  besides  soil 
temperature  which  make  a  wet  soil  objectionable.  The  grape 
simply  will  not  succeed  on  such  a  soil.  One  should  therefore 
drain  the  land  if  it  is  wet,  or  qlse  abandon  thei  site  and 
plant  elsewhere. 

If  the  land  is  to  be  drained  the  most  effective  way  is  to  use 
tile.  While  this  is  expensive  it  is  generally  to  be  recommended, 
as  the  improvement  of  the  soil  is  then  permanent.  Of  course, 
something  may  be  done  by  open  ditches,  and  sometimes  they 
may  be  necessary  to  carry  off  surface  water,  even  though  the  land 
is  tile-drained.  But  ditches  are  never  very  effective  so  far  as 
their  influence  on  the  water  in  the  soil  is  concerned,  and,  more- 
over, they  are  in  the  way  and  take  up  valuable  room,  so  that  tile 
draining  is  much  to  be  prefen-ed. 

2.  Add  Humus. — Incorporate  as  much  humus  in  the  soil  as 
possible.  This  renders  it  lighter  and  more  friable,  admitting 
the  air  more  freely  and  thereby  renders  it  warmer,  as  well  as 
improving  it  in  many  other  w^ays. 

3.  Praciice  Good  Cultivation. — Deep  plowing  and  even 
subsoiling  of  the  land  before  the  vineyard  is  set,  and  reasonably 
deep  plowing  with  good  cultivation  after  it  is  set,  will  have  a 
very  decided  influence  on  the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

Of  course,  the  farther  north  the  grower  is  located,  or  the 
longer  the  season  needed  to  mature  the  variety  grown,  the  greater 
would  be  the  importance  of  a  warm  soil  and  the  more  one  should 
insist  on  the  types  just  discussed. 

Influence  of  Heavy  Soils. — On  the  other  hand,  there  is  much 
evidence  to  show  that  some  of  the  heavier  soils,  the  silty  loams, 
clay  loams,  and  even  the  fairly  heavy  clays,  while  they  do  not 
ordinarily  produce  as  large  crops  as  the  lighter  and  warmer 
soils,  and  while  they  are  not  so  certain  to  mature  their  crops, 
frosts  occurring  in  the  autumn  before  the  fruit  is  ripe,  yet  the 
quality  of  the  fruit  produced  is  very  much  better.    It  is  sweeter, 


278  SITES  AND  SOILS  FOR  THE  VINEYARD 

lias  more  of  a  bouquet,  and  its  keeping  quality  is  very  much  im- 
proved. This  being  the  case  the  question  arises  whether  it 
might  not  be  possible  in  many  cases  to  so  handle  these  clay  soils 
as  to  overcome  their  bad  influences  on  the  vineyard,  and  par- 
ticularly ou  the  size  of  crop  produced,  and  perhaps  on  the  date 
at  which  it  matures.  This  would  mean  making  them  lighter 
and  better  drained,  and  the  three  points  just  discussed  (drain- 
age, incorporation  of  humus,  and  good  culture)  would  be  the 
most  hopeful  lines  along  which  to  work. 

Soil  Fertility. — While  a  high  degree  of  fertility  is  not  neces- 
sary for  the  vineyard,  and  while  too  gTeat  fertility  is  even  to  be 
avoided,  since  it  tends  to  give  more  wood  growth  and  less  fruit, 
yet  the  question  of  the  natural  fertility  ought  always  to  be 
considered  in  selecting  the  vineyard  site,  and  this  is  certainly 
one  reason  why  clays  give  better  results  than  sandy  soils  as 
just  suggested. 

If  the  fertility  is  not  in  the  soil  naturally,  or  if  the  physical 
condition  is  not  as  good  as  it  should  be,  it  is  very  desirable  to 
take  a  year  or  so  before  setting  the  vineyard  and  get  the  soil 
into  better  condition.  Efforts  in  this  direction  would  be  along 
the  lines  (1)  of  growing  cultivated  crops  on  the  land  ;  (2  )  of  in- 
corporating humus  in  the  soil,  and  (3)  on  the  heavier  types  of 
soils,  or  on  those  which  are  strongly  acid,  of  applying  lime.  This 
latter  is  not  often  done,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  might  be 
frequently  used  to  advantage.  Two  tons  of  ground  limestone 
per  acre,  or  half  that  amount  of  burned  lime,  if  the  soil  is  espe- 
cially heavy,  will  correct  the  acidity  and  gi-eatly  improve  the 
physical  condition  of  the  soil. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  temperature  so  important  a  factor  in  grape  growing? 

2.  What  are  the  best  temperatures? 

3.  How  do  latitude  and  altitude  influence  temperature? 

4.  How  do  lakes  and  rivers  influence  temperature? 

5.  How  do  winds  affect  vineyards? 

6.  What  exposure  or  slope  is  best  for  a  vineyard  site?     Why? 

7.  What  is  the  best  type  of  soil  for  a  vineyard? 

8.  What  factors  influence  soil  temperatures? 

9.  What  advantages  liave  heavy  soils  for  grapes? 
10.  Discuss  soil  fertility  in  vineyards. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 

No  gi-oup  of  fruits  is  more  interesting  botanically,  and  per- 
haps none  is  more  complicated,  than  the  grape.  It  is  not  the 
province  of  a  work  of  this  kind  to  discuss  this  question  at  any 
length,  yet  it  has  such  an  important  bearing  on  the  character- 
istics of  varieties,  and  on  the  very  practical  matter  of  selecting 
varieties  for  the  vineyard,  that  a  brief  discussion  is  advisable. 

Species  of  Grapes. — The  most  important  single  species  of 
grape  which  is  involved  in  the  production  of  the  varieties  grown 
in  the  United  States  is  undoubtedly  the  northern  fox  grape, 
Vitis  lahrusca,  one  of  the  native  species  of  the  northern  and 
eastern  sections  of  this  country.  The  fact  that  this  species  has 
to  its  credit  the  Concord  would  in  itself  fairly  well  establish  this 
claim ;  but  it  has  also  produced  such  varieties  as  Eaton,  Moore's 
Early,  and  Worden. 

The  wild  species  gets  its  name  from  a  peculiar  musky  odor 
and  flavor  of  the  fruit,  and  M^hen  this  is  carried  by  the  cultivated 
offspring  it  is  always  to  be  regarded  as  a  handicap  in  a  commer- 
cial variety,  and  except  for  the  comparatively  few  people  who 
think  this  flavor  is  pleasant  and  refreshing,  it  is  an  even  more 
serious  objection  from  the  standpoint  of  the  home  vineyard. 
With  some  of  the  cultivated  varieties  of  this  species,  Dracut 
Amber,  for  example,  the  characteristic  is  almost  as  strong  as 
with  the  worst  of  the  wild  forms,  and  in  such  cases  they  have 
not  become  very  popular,  even  though  they  may  have  had  many 
other  excellent  qualities. 

European  Grape. — Probably  the  second  most  important 
species  of  Vitis,  so  far  as  its  influence  on  the  vineyard  industry 
of  the  United  States  is  concerned,  is  the  European  grape,  Vitis 
vinifera.  This  is  not  only  important  in  itself  in  such  sections  as 
southern  California,  but  it  has  entered  into  the  production  of 
many  hybrids,  such  as  Delaware,  Catawba,  Brighton,  and 
Niagara,   which  are  very  important   commercial   varieties  in 

279 


280  VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 

most  of  the  leadijig  grape-gTOwing  sections  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada. 

Suimner  Grape.— X  third  species  which  has  had  a  consider- 
able influence  in  the  production  of  American  varieties  of  grapes 
is  Vitis  cestivalis,  a  more  southern  species,  ranging  generally 
from  Virginia  southward,  and  known  popularly  as  the  Summer 
Grape.  This  species  has  been  involved  mostly  in  the  production, 
of  varieties  used  for  wine  making,  such  as  Cynthiana  and  Nor- 
ton, but  is  also  considered  by  some  to  have  entered  into  the  pro- 
duction of  such  sorts  as  Winchell,  or  Green  Mountain,  which  is 
distinctly  a  table  grape.  The  fruit  of  the  wild  forms,  and  to  a 
large  extent  of  cultivated  varieties  derived  from  it,  has  usually 
a  distinctly  sprightly  flavor  and  is  apt  to  be  pretty  acid,  too  much 
so  for  table  purposes.  But  it  carries  plenty  of  sugar,  and  some 
of  these  varieties  are  among  the  most  popular  wine  grapes.  The 
vines  are  resistant  to  the  attacks  of  both  diseases  and  insects,  in- 
cluding the  phylloxera,  but  most  of  them  require  a  comparatively 
long  season  in  which  to  mature  their  fruit. 

Vitis  riparia,  the  River  Grape,  is  another  species  that  has 
had  much  the  same  type  of  influence  on  the  grape  industry  of 
the  country  as  has  cestivalis.  The  vines  are  vigorous,  are  very 
resistant  to  phylloxera.  The  cuttings  root  readily,  and  its  most 
notable  contribution  to  the  vineyard  industry  of  the  world  is  its 
use  as  a  stock  for  the  vinifera  varieties,  particularly  in  the  vine- 
yards of  Europe.  The  fruit  of  the  species  is  small,  and  even 
when  hybridized  with  lahrusca,  in  such  varieties  as  Bacchus  and 
Clinton,  no  gi-eat  size  is  produced.  There  is  a  very  distinct 
acidity  to  the  fruit  even  with  the  hybrids,  at  least,  until  they 
become  very  ripe  indeed.  Another  serious  drawback  to  the 
varieties  derived  from  this  species  is  their  susceptibility  to  the 
attacks  of  leaf  hoppers  which  are  especially  partial  to  them  and 
often  very  seriously  injure  the  foliage  of  such  varieties. 

Two  other  species  or  botanical  varieties,  Vitis  cestivalis 
Bourquiniana  and  V.  cestivalis  Lincecumii,  have  been  brought 
into  prominence  through  the  work  of  Mr.  T.  V.  Munson,  of 
Texas,  and  varieties  derived  from  them  are  important  in  that 
section  of  the  country. 


RESISTANCE  TO  DISEASE  281 

Muscadine  grapes  belong  to  the  species  Vitis  rotundifolia. 
They  are  represented  by  James,  Scnppernong,  and  many  other 
varieties  of  several  colors.  They  are  very  commonly  grown  in 
the  southern  and  southeastern  states.  The  plants  are  resistant 
to  disease,  and  are  very  vigorous  growers.  The  fniit  is  borne  in 
small  clusters  and  the  berries  fall  badly. 

Variety  Characteristics. — Turning  now  to  a  consideration  of 
some  of  the  important  characteristics  of  individual  varieties  (a 
list  of  the  characteristics  of  the  ideal  variety,  so  to  speak),  we 
have  the  following  points  which  are  all  worth  taking  into 
account,  though  some  are  far  more  important  than  others. 

1.  Productiveness. — This  needs  little  or  no  discussion.  No 
one  would  question  its  importance.  It  is  important  whether  one 
is  growing  grapes  for  money  or  for  fun ;  there  is  neither  money 
nor  fun  in  grapeless  gTape  vines.  Yet  it  is,  of  course,  far  more 
important  Avith  the  commercial  grower.  Productiveness  is  re- 
sponsible for  a  large  part  of  the  popularity  of  certain  varieties 
which  are  poor  in  quality  but  produce  so  much  fruit  that  they 
are  profitable  even  at  a  lower  price. 

2.  Quality. — This  probably  stands  next  to  productiveness  in 
importance  for  commercial  vineyards,  and  ahead  of  it  for  the 
home  vineyard.  If  one  wants  to  get  an  idea  of  how  great  the 
difference  in  quality  is  between  a  really  fine  variety  and  a  de- 
cidedly poor  one,  let  him  compare  Champion  or  Ives  or  Dracut 
Amber  with  Delaware  or  Brighton  or  Diamond.  Good  grapes 
are  so  delicious  in  flavor  that  it  seems  peculiarly  unfortunate 
and  even  inexcusable  to  leave  this  factor  out  of  consideration  in 
choosing  varieties.  Usually  the  quality  of  a  A'ariety  is  improved 
by  the  infusion  of  some  vinifera  blood ;  there  is  less  likely  to  be 
a  foxy  taint  to  it,  and  more  sure  to  be  plenty  of  sugar  and  that 
vinous  character  which  is  so  attractive. 

3.  Resistance  to  Disease. — This  is  a  point  of  great  practi- 
cal value,  especially  to  the  commercial  vineyardist,  but  it  is  no 
small  consideration  to  the  home  gardener.  And  there  is  a  wide 
difference  in  various  sorts  in  this  respect.  One  variety  is  always 
troubled  with  mildew  and  another  very  seldom  has  it ;  one 
variety  is  completely  ruined  by  black  rot  while  another  is  com- 


282  VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 

paratively  immune.  Generally  vinifera  blood  lowers  the  stand- 
ing of  a  variety  in  this  respect.  JEstivalis  varieties  are  highly 
resistant  to  disease.  The  muscadine  group  is  seldom  affected 
with  disease. 

4.  Color. — We  have,  of  course,  the  three  general  classes  of 
colors,  red,  white,  and  black;  and  the  point  to  consider  here  is 
not  so  much  a  difference  in  the  attractiveness  of  two  red  varieties, 
though  there  are  decided  differences,  as  it  is  to  select  some  sorts 
of  each  color  in  order  to  have  a  pleasing  diversity  of  colors. 
This  is  a  point  of  practical  importance  in  catering  to  a  local 
trade,  assisting  the  growler  in  pleasing  customers,  and  helping  to 
prevent  gluts,  and  it  certainly  adds  greatly  to  the  charm  of  the 
home  vineyard  if  one  has  all  three  colors  (and  several  different 
shades  of  each  color )  represented. 

5.  Self-sterility. — Many  varieties  of  gi-apes  are  almost  en- 
tirely self-sterile ;  that  is,  they  cannot  fertilize  themselves,  while 
others  are  said  to  be  entirely  self-fertile.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
discard  a  variety  because  it  is  self-sterile,  though  it  is  usually 
considered  as  a  point  against  it,  but  the  characteristic  ought  to 
be  known  and  considered,  so  that  other  varieties  may  be  set  with 
it.  Even  with  those  sorts  which  are  rated  as  self-fertile  it  is 
probable  that  cross-pollinating  helps  to  make  their  crops  more 
sure  and  abundant.  Muscadines  are  mostly  dioecious,  and  male 
vines  are  grown  near  the  fruiting  ones. 

6.  Does  It  Shell? — Do  the  berries  separate  readily  from  the 
stems  ?  Some  varieties  are  much  worse  in  this  respect  than 
others.  As  a  class,  the  labruscas  shell  very  badly,  while  the 
riniferas  do  not ;  and  any  infusion  of  vinifera  blood  is  apt  to 
help  in  preventing  the  shelling  of  a  variety ;  that  is,  the  lahrusca- 
vinifera  hybrids  do  not  shell  nearly  so  badly  as  do  the  straight 
labruscas.  Muscadine  varieties  shell  still  more  seriously  and 
are,  therefore,  not  popular  as  market  grapes.  This  point  is,  of 
course,  especially  important  with  commercial  growers,  but  it  is 
worth  consideration  even  for  the  home  vineyard. 

Y.  Does  the  Variety  Keep  Well? — This  is  another  point 
which  is  especially  important  for  the  commercial  grower,  but, 
like  shelling,  is  worth  consideration  by  the  amateur.    And  there 


CONCORD  283 

is  a  marked  difference  iu  varieties  in  their  ability  to  stand  up 
after  they  are  ripe. 

8.  Type  of  Bunch. — This  is  a  point  which  is  especially  im- 
portant with  the  commercial  grower,  since  a  handsome  bunch 
will  sell  better  than  an  ngly  one,  yet  even  for  the  amateur  the 
pleasure  of  gTowing  a  really  beautiful  bunch  is  worth  considera- 
tion. Of  course,  it  may  happen  that  other  good  points  in  a 
commercial  variety  more  than  offset  the  value  of  a  handsome 
bunch,  but,  other  things  being  equal,  or  nearly  so,  the  variety 
with  the  handsome  bunch  is  the  one  to  choose. 

Ideals  differ,  of  course,  but  with  the  writer  the  ideal  bunch 
of  grapes  should  be  somewhat  as  follows :  It  should  have  a 
shoulder  and  should  be  reasonably  compact,  though  not  too  much 
so.  Extremely  compact  bunches  are  not  apt  to  develop  all  their 
berries  so  well  and  they  are  not  so  comfortable  to  handle  in 
eating.  It  should  taper  to  a  point  like  the  Brighton  instead  of 
having  a  blunt  end  like  Champion  or  Eaton.  All  parts  should 
be  well  developed,  with  the  berries  uniformly  ripened  and  no 
diseased,  small,  or  poorly  developed  berries.  Lastly,  it  should 
have  a  handsome  bloom  and  it  should  be  grown  and  handled  so 
that  the  bloom  is  not  blemished. 

9.  Resistance  to  Phylloxera. — This  character  is  not  pos- 
sessed at  all,  or  to  a  very  small  degree,  by  the  European  sorts ; 
but  even  among  our  American  varieties  there  is  a  wide  differ- 
ence in  the  degree  of  resistance  to  this  pest.  Those  of  the 
Hparia,  rupestris,  and  wstivalis  groups  are  most  resistant 
to  phylloxera. 

Leading  Varieties. — While  different  sections  have  their  pref- 
erences as  to  varieties,  yet  it  is  surprising  how  widely  certain 
varieties  are  grown.  And  it  would  surprise  any  one  who  has 
not  studied  the  matter  to  see  how  nearly  identical  the  lists  would 
be  if  one  compiled  a  catalog  of  the  six  or  eight  leading  varie- 
ties in  the  principal  vineyard  sections  of  the  countiy. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  in  order  under  these  circumstances  to 
describe  very  briefly  a  few  of  these  leading  varieties. 

Concord. — The  list  should,  of  course,  be  headed  by  the  Con- 
cord  (Fig.   149),  which  is  the  back-bone  of  the  vineyard   in- 


284 


VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 


dustrj  of  most  grape-growing  sections  of  this  continent,  just  as 
the  Baldwin  apple  is  the  back-bone  of  the  apple  orchards  of  New 
York  and  New  England.  The  California  region  is  a  notable 
exception  to  this.    While  Concord  is  grown  there  for  grape  juice 


Fig.   149. — A  cluster  of  Concord  grapes,  the  most  noted  varuty  < 
which  succeeds  over  a  wider  range  of  country  than  ai 


American  grapes  and  one 
other  variety. 


and   table  use,   the   raisins   and  wine  grapes   of  the   vinifera 
group  predominate. 

The  Concord  was  grown  from  seed  of  a  wild  gi*ape  planted 
by  Ephraim  W.  Bull,  of  Concord,  Massachusetts,  in  1843.  It 
is  a  rather  handsome  and  fairly  large  black  grape,  ripening 
about  mid-season.  Its  quality  is  not  of  the  best,  as  it  carries 
some  of  the  foxy  flavor  of  its  wild  ancestors  and  is  not  so  rich 


LEADING  VARIETIES 


285 


and  sweet  as  many  other  varieties,  and  yet  it  is  by  no  means  a 
poor  grape  for  table  use.  Its  most  valuable  characteristic  is 
perhaps  its  ability  to  succeed  on  a  wide  variety  of  soils.  It  will 
do  reasonably  well  on  all  of  the  different  types  of  soils  consid- 


FiG.  150.— A  cluster  of  Niagara  grapes,  a  white  variety  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  grown. 
It  is  o£  good  quahty  and  succeeds  well  in  most  sections. 

ered  as  gi-ape  soils,  and  remarkably  well  on  most  of  them.  It  is 
also  very  productive.  This  combination  of  characteristics  makes 
it  reasonably  sure  that  the  gi-owcr,  whether  he  grows  it  for  money 
or  for  his  own  table,  will  each  year  harvest  a  large  crop  of  fruit 
which  looks  good  and  tastes  good.  It  is  this  certainty  of  results 
which  "  takes  "  with  the  average  grower. 


286  VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 

Niagara. — Next  to  the  Concord  would  probably  stand  the 
Xiagara  (Fig.  150),  though  opinions  might  differ  on  this.  It  is 
a  seedling  of  the  Concord,  said  to  have  been  crossed  with  pollen 
of  Cassady,  a  labrusca-vinifera  hybrid.  It  carries  some  of  the 
Concord's  good  characters.  Its  two  most  valuable  character- 
istics are  its  productiveness  and  its  beauty.  The  clusters  are 
large  and  well  formed,  and  the  berries  large  and  handsome;  in 
color  a  yellowish  green  when  fully  ripe.  A  well-grown  bunch 
of  Niagara  is  certainly  a  thing  to  admire,  and  many  people  will 
be  equally  enthusiastic  after  they  have  eaten  it,  though  the  really 
critical  will  find  much  to  be  desired  in  the  flavor.  It  is  not 
quite  so  hardy  as  the  Concord  and  is  much  more  susceptible  to 
diseases.  It  is  not  a  variety  that  the  writer  would  set  in  his 
own  home  vineyard,  but  its  good  points  will  always  make  it 
popular  as  a  market  sort. 

The  Delaware  (Fig.  151)  is  another  very  popular  market 
grape,  and  is  almost  equally  desirable  for  home  use.  Its  history 
is  very  obscure,  and  authorities  can  only  guess  at  where  and  how 
it  was  originated.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  hybrid  containing  the 
blood  of  three  species,  labruscaj  vinifera,  and  Bourguiniana. 
Both  in  bunch  and  berry  the  Delaware  is  small  in  size,  and  this 
constitutes  its  most  serious  shortcoming.  It  is  also  rather  a 
poor  grower,  with  a  decided  tendency  to  overbear.  These  char- 
acteristics, combined  with  the  small  size  of  its  bunches  and 
berries,  make  it  necessary  to  feed  and  cultivate  it  well  and  to 
prune  it  severely  if  reasonably  satisfactory  clusters  are  to  be  se- 
cured. But  its  extremely  high  quality,  its  hardiness,  its  produc- 
tiveness, and  its  resistance  to  many  insects  and  diseases  make  it 
a  favorite  with  both  the  amateur  and  professional  gi"ower. 

The  Wordenis  a  seedling  of  the  Concord  and  is  considered 
as  a  straight  lahrusca;  that  is,  the  seed  from  which  it  grew  was 
either  a  self-pollinated  one  or  the  pollen  came  from  some  other 
lahrusca  vine.  It  is  a  large  and  handsome  black  variety,  both 
bunches  and  berries  being  larger  than  those  of  the  Concord.  It 
ripens  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  than  Concord,  which  makes  it 
valuable  for  those  sections  where  there  is  doubt  about  ripening 


THE  BRIGHTON 


287 


Concord  before  frost.  In  quality,  Worden  is  generally  consid- 
ered to  be  decidedly  better  than  Concord,  and  it  is  therefore 
usually  preferred  to  it  as  a  home  grape.  It  is  much  softer  than 
Concord,  and  therefore  does  not  stand  up  so  well  when  shipped 
and  it  is  more  liable  to  crack.  These  characteristics  are  its  chief 
shortcomings  as  a  market  sort,  but  they  are  sufficiently  serious 
to  considerably  reduce  its  po})ularity  as  a  market  variety  except 


tSi. — A  cluster  of  Delaware  grapes.     This  is  a  very  popular  variety  for  both  home  and 
market  use. 


where  it  is  to  be  sold  locally.  When  used  locally,  however,  either 
grown  in  the  home  vineyard  or  for  local  market,  it  is  very  popu- 
lar and  deservedly  so. 

The  Brighton  (Fig.  ir)2)  is  a  hybrid  between  the  two 
species  Idbrusca  and  vinifera,  having  been  produced  by  crossing 
the  Concord  and  the  Diana  Hamburg,  the  latter  itself  being  a 
lahrusca-vinifera  hybrid.  The  Brighton  is  thus  what  is  known 
as  a  secondary  hybrid.  It  is  a  very  handsome  grape,  of  a  deep 
red  color,  and  with  particularly  handsome  clusters.  The  quality 
is  especially  good,  with  a  rich,  vinous,  sugary  flavor  that  always 


288 


VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 


makes  it  a  favorite.  As  a  variety  for  the  home  vineyard,  or 
for  local  markets,  the  Brighton  is  very  deservedly  popular.  It 
does  not  stand  up  well  in  shipping  and  marketing,  however,  the 
fruit  deteriorating  in  quality  very  quickly,  so  that  it  is  not 


Fig.   152. — A  cluster  of  Brighton  grapes,  one  of  the  finest  varieties  for  home  use  or  local 
markets. 

generally  popular  for  distant  markets.  Another  defect  which 
it  has  and  which  should  always  be  provided  against  by  setting  it 
along  with  other  varieties,  is  its  tendency  to  self-sterility.  In 
this  respect  it  is  one  of  the  most  serious  offenders. 

Moore,  or  Moore  Early,  is  an  early  black  grape,  a  seedling 
of  the  Concord  and  therefore  another  straight  labrusca.     It  rer 


CAMPBELL  OR  CAMPBELL'S  EARLY        289 

sembles  the  Concord  in  many  ways,  but  ripens  earlier  and  the 
clusters  are  not  so  large  nor  so  handsome.  Its  quality  is  only 
fair,  and,  like  all  labruscas,  the  berries  shell  badly.  But  as  an 
early  variety  to  extend  the  season  it  is  deservedly  popular  both 
for  market  and  home  use. 

Catawba. — In  many  grape-growing  sections  Catawba  is 
ranked  among  the  three  or  fovir  most  important  varieties.  Its 
origin  is  not  known,  but  it  seems  certain  that  botanically  it  is  a 
hybrid  between  labrusca  and  vinifera.  It  was  introduced  by 
John  Adlum,  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  in  1823,  and  has 
been  popular  ever  since.  It  is  a  handsome  red  grape  with  very 
compact  clusters,  fine  quality,  and  remarkable  keeping  quality. 
It  is  decidedly  subject  to  fungous  diseases,  which  is,  of  course,  a 
very  serious  handicap,  and  its  very  late  season  of  ripening 
makes  it  unsuited  to  sections  where  early  frosts  occur.  But  hav- 
ing stood  the  test  of  nearly  a  century  it  is  likely  to  be  some  years 
yet  before  it  is  supplanted. 

Winchell  or  Green  Mountain,  while  not  grown  veiy  largely 
in  commercial  vineyards,  deserves  mention  here  as  an  early 
variety  to  lengthen  the  season  of  marketing  or  home  use.  It  is 
certainly  one  of  the  very  best  early  grapes  as  to  quality,  and 
has  many  other  characteristics  to  commend  it,  being  hardy, 
vigorous,  and  productive.  It  was  originated  by  James  W. 
Clough,  of  Stamford,  Vermont,  from  seed  of  an  unknown 
variety,  but  it  is  generally  considered  to  be  a  hybrid  of  at  least 
the  two  species  Jahrusca  and  vinifera,  and  perhaps  has  blood  of 
cestivalis  as  well.  Some  authorities  regard  the  Winchell  and 
Green  Mountain  as  two  distinct  varieties,  but  it  is  usually  con- 
sidered that  they  are  one  and  the  same  variety.  At  least  they 
are  very  nearly  identical. 

Campbell  or  Campbell's  Early  is  one  of  the  latest  varieties 
to  come  into  popular  favor  and  commercially  has  had  a  some- 
what checkered  career.  It  was  very  popular  when  first  intro- 
duced, but  owing,  perhaps,  to  its  not  being  grown  on  the  right 
type  of  soil,  or  to  some  other  mismanagement,  it  has  often 
proved  disappointing.  It  is  a  large  and  handsome  black  grape, 
ripening  ten  days  or  two  weeks  before  Concord.  It  is  a  vinifera- 
19 


290  VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES 

labnisca  hybrid  originated  by  G.  W.  Campbell,  of  Delaware, 
Ohio.  One  of  its  parents  was  a  seedling  of  Moore,  and  the 
other  parent  another  seedling  produced  bj  Mr.  Campbell,  using 
pollen  from  Muscat  Hamburg  which  thus  introduced  the  vinifera 
blood.  Its  quality  is  excellent  when  allowed  to  get  fully  ripe, 
and  it  is  a  very  valuable  addition  to  the  list  of  early  varieties. 
Other  Good  Grapes. — In  addition  to  the  foregoing  varieties 
the  following  list  is  worthy  of  consideration  by  the  amateur  who 
is  fond  of  good  grapes: 

Agawani,   red  Herbert,  black 

Barry,  black  lona,  red 

Brilliant,  red  Lady  Washington,  white 

Diamond,  white  Lindlej',  red 

Dutchess,    white  Merfimac,  black 

Gsertner,  red  Triumph,  white 

Goethe,    red  Wilder,   black 

California  Varieties. — In  the  region  centering  about  south- 
em  California,  varieties  of  the  species  Vitis  vinifera  of  Europe 
are  largely  grown.  The  old  Mission  variety  is  often  called  El 
Paso,  California,  and  other  local  names.  This  is  being,  or  has 
been,  replaced  by  the  Flame  Tokay  for  shipping,  the  Muscat  of 
Alexandria  for  raisins,  and  perhaps  the  Zinfandel  for  wine. 
I^umerous  minor  varieties  supplement  these.  As  these  vinifera 
varieties  are  subject  to  attack  of  phylloxera  they  are  grown  on 
resistant  stocks  of  the  river  gi-ape  (riparia)  and  the  sand 
grape  ( rupestris ) . 

Muscadine  varieties  are  grown  mostly  for  home  use  and  for 
commercial  manufacture  of  marmalade,  juices,  etc.  Their  ten- 
dency to  fall  from  the  stem  makes  them  unsuited  to  shipment  for 
table  use.  The  Scuppernong  is  the  oldest  variety.  Others  are : 
Memory,  Thomas,  James,  Luola,  Flowers,  and  Mish. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  the  wild   species  of  grapes   that  have   been   used   in   developing 

our  cultivated  varieties. 

2.  Which   two   of   these   have   had   the    most   important    influence   on   the 

grapes  of  the  United  States? 

3.  What  wild  species  of  grapes  grow  in  your  region? 


QUESTIONS  291 

i.  Give   a  list  of  the   important  characteristics   of  a  market  variety  of 
grapes.    Which  two  of  these  do  you  think  are  the  most  important? 

5.  Discuss  tlie  Concord  grape. 

6.  What  is  the  most  important  variety  of  ^rape  in  your  section?     From 

what  wild  species  was  it  derived? 

7.  Describe  the  Delaware  grape. 

8.  Give  a  list  of  the  five  varieties  of  grapes  that  you  would  set  in  a 

home  garden. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 
ESTABLISHING  THE  VINEYARD 

While  the  propagation  of  gi-apes  is  usually  a  separate  busi- 
ness, carried  on  by  the  nurseryman  and  not  by  the  grower,  yet 
it  may  be  worth  while  to  include  here  a  brief  discussion  of 
the  subject. 

Grapes  are  propagated  most  commonly  by  ordinary,  hard- 
wood cuttings,  but  single-eye  cuttings,  layering  and  grafting 
are  also  used. 

In  propagating  by  cuttings  only  the  wood  of  last  season's 
growth  should  be  used,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  use  the 
wood  from  the  tips  of  canes  where  it  has  not  ripened  well.  It  is 
also  best  to  avoid  very  rank  canes  which  have  made  a  heavy, 
long-jointed  growth.  This  is  because  such  wood  contains  fewer 
buds  in  the  length  of  each  cutting,  and  the  wood  itself  is  coarse- 
grained and  apt  to  be  less  well  supplied  with  stored  foods.  Buds 
are  desirable  not  only  to  furnish  the  gi-owing  point  which  shall 
produce  the  shoot  from  the  upper  end  of  the  cutting,  but  also  be- 
cause their  tissues  are  better  supplied  with  elaborated  plant  foods, 
such  as  starch,  and  consequently  roots  will  push  out  more  vigor- 
ously from  near  the  buds  on  the  lower  part  of  the  cutting. 

The  wood  is  cut  into  lengths  of  perhaps  six  to  eighteen  inches. 
The  length  of  cutting  depends  partly  on  the  type  of  wood  used, 
being  longer,  as  a  rule,  where  one  is  forced  to  use  very  long- 
jointed  wood.  Longer  cuttings  are  also  used  in  sections  where 
the  season  and  the  soil  are  apt  to  be  dry.  In  this  latter  case 
the  cutting  must  be  long  enough,  so  that  its  lower  end  may  be 
buried  in  the  soil  to  a  sufficient  depth  to  insure  the  surrounding 
soil  being  moist.  It  is  best  to  cut  fairly  close  to  a  bud  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  cutting,  since  this  lower  end  is  the  point  where 
the  roots  are  most  likely  to  start  and  the  bud  insures  a  good 
growth  of  roots.  At  the  upper  end  it  is  customary  to  cut  about 
an  inch  above  the  last  bud.  This  is  to  allow  some  drying  out  and 
292 


WHEN  TO  TRANSPLANT  293 

dying  back  of  the  tip  of  the  cutting  without  injuring  and  weak- 
ening the  bud. 

Storage  of  Cuttings. — The  cuttings  may  be  made  at  any  time 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen  from  the  vines  in  the  autumn.  This 
is  best  done  fairly  soon  thereafter  to  avoid  all  danger  of  the 
wood  being  injured  by  cold  weather,  and  to  allow  plenty  of  time 
for  the  cuttings  4:0^  callous.  They  are  tied  up  in  bundles  of 
twenty-five  or  fifty.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  butts 
of  the  cuttings  are  all  at  one  end  of  the  bundle,  since  it  is  to  be 
buried  with  the  butt  end  of  tlie  cuttings  uppermost.  A  warm, 
well-drained  spot  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose  and  the 
bundles  buried  so  that  the  upper  end  is  about  four  or  five  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Here  they  are  allowed  to  re- 
main, usually  until  spring,  and  the  butt  ends  of  the  cuttings,  be- 
ing in  the  warmer  soil,  form  a  callous  and  begin  to  start  roots, 
while  the  top  end  of  the  cutting  being  in  cooler  soil  does  not  start. 
When,  therefore,  the  bundles  of  cuttings  are  taken  up  in  the 
spring  and  set  out,  the  roots,  being  already  started,  soon  develop 
a  root  system  large  enough,  to  provide  food  and  water  for  the 
top  when  it  begins  to  grow.  Cuttings  may  also  be  stored  in  damp 
sand  in  a  cellar  where  the  temperature  can  be  kept  fairiy  low, 
but  not  below  freezing. 

Setting  the  Cuttings. — The  cuttings  should  be  set  out  in  the 
spring  as  soon  as  the  soil  has  become  warm  enough  to  be  well 
fitted.  Trenches  of  the-  proper  depth  are  opened,  usually  with  a 
plow,  and  the  cuttings  are- set  in  them  usually  in  a  slanting  posi- 
tion and  about  three  to  six  inches  apart.  The  rows  are  placed  far 
enough  apart  to  allow  for  the  cultivator,  and  the  soil  is  firmed 
down  carefully  about  the  cuttings  which  are  buried  so  as  to 
have  only  the  top  bud  (or  two)  exposed.  A  moderately  fertile 
soil  is  desirable  to  produce  a  good  growth,  and  the  soil  should  be 
thoroughly  prepared  and  should  be  kept  well  cultivated  to  in- 
sure keeping  do^ai  the  weeds  and  keeping  up  an  abundant  supply 
of  moisture. 

When  to  Transplant. — The  vines  gi-own  from  cuttings  in 
this  way  may  be  dug  and  sold  at  the  end  of  the  first  season  as 
one-year  plants,  or  they  may  be  gTown  for  another  year  in  the 


294 


ESTABLISHING  THE  VINEYARD 


imrscrj  and  sold  at  two  vears.  When  grown  for  this  second 
season  they  arc  sometimes  transplanted  to  new  ground  and 
sometimes  allowed  to  stand  where  they  were  originally  set. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  relative  value  of  one-year  and  two- 
year  vines  for  setting.     Apparently  the  majority  of  gi-owers 


Fig.    153. — A    vigorous   one-year 
grape  vine. 


f;    .  ■ 

Fig.  IS4. — Same  vine  as  shown 
in  figure  153  with  roots  pruned 
ready  for  setting. 


prefer  the  one-year  vines,  since  only  those  plants  which  are 
vigorous  and  growthy  will  be  large  enough  at  the  end  of  the  first 
season  to  be  marketed  (Figs.  153  and  154).  Growers  who 
prefer  these  one-year  vines  contend  that  the  two-year  vines  are 
merely  the  culls  which  are  so  small  at  one  year  that  they  will 
not  sell  (Fig.  155),  and  the  nurseryman  is  forced  to  grow  them 
an  additional  year  in  order  to  get  them  to  a  reasonable  size.     On 


LAl-ERING 


295 


the  other  hand,  there  is  no  reason,  of  course,  why  vigorous  one- 
year  vines  might  not  be  grown  for  another  year  in  the  nursery 
and  this  is  sometimes  done.  For  this  type  of  two-year  plant 
there  is  much  to  be  said,  and  some  growers  will  use  no  other 
type  (Figs.  156  and  157). 

Single-eye  Cuttings. — With  new  varieties,  where  wood  is 
very  scarce,  single-eye  cuttings  are  used.  These  cuttings,  as  the 
name  implies,  have  only  one  bud  with  about 
an  inch  of  wood  on  either  side  of  it.  The  entire 
cutting  is  buried  an  inch  or  so  below  the  sur- 
face when  it  is  set.  These  cuttings  are  often 
handled  in  flats  placed  in  hotbeds  or  cold 
frames,  or  more  frequently  in  a  bench  of  a 
greenhouse.  They  do  not,  of  course,  produce 
as  strong  plants  as  the  longer  cuttings,  and 
they  require  special  care  to  bring  them  to  mar- 
ketable size,  which  means  extra  cost  of  produc- 
tion. But  for  rare,  new  varieties,  vines  of 
which  can  be  sold  at  high  prices,  the  method 
will  no  doubt  pay. 

Layering  is  also  used  with  those  species  or 
varieties  of  grapes  which  root  with  difficulty.  ^,,,  L 
For  this  purpose  a  one-year  cane  is  selected, 
starting  from  near  the  base  of  the  old  vine, 
and  this  cane  is  buried  a  couple  of  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  This  may  be  done 
either  in  the  autumn  or  spring,  but  preferably 
the  latter.  The  trench  should  be  opened  to  the  proper  depth 
and  the  canes  bent  down  and  fastened  in  the  bottom,  but  it  is 
not  covered  until  the  buds  have  started  into  growth.  When 
these  new  shoots  have  grown  for  six  or  eight  inches,  so  as  to  be 
well  above  the  trench,  the  earth  is  filled  in  and  firmed  down 
about  them,  and  they  soon  strike  roots.  In  case  the  variety  is 
one  which  roots  with  particular  difficulty,  an  incision  is  some- 
times made  opposite  each  bud  on  the  original  cane  at  the  time 
it  is  laid  down.     Like  any  other  wound,  this  incision  tends  to 


-A  weak 


Fig.  155. 
one-year  grape  vine. 
Such  a  vine  must  be 
grown  another  year 
before  it  is  large 
enough  to  be  market- 
able. 


296 


ESTABLISHING  THE  VINEYARD 


draw  the  elaborated  food  to  this  point  and  assists  materially  in 
the  rooting  process. 

Grafting  is  also  used  to  a  limited  extent  with  gi-apes.     The 


Fig.    156. — A  strong  two-year 
grape  vine. 


Fig.   157. — Same  vine   as   figure  156 
with  roots  pruned  for  setting. 


most  common  reason  for  using  this  method  is  to  secure  vines  of 
varieties  which  would  be  seriously  injured  by  the  phylloxera  on 
roots  of  some  variety  which  is  resistant  to  that  pest.  Another 
reason  is  to  work  over  poor  varieties  to  better  ones  just  as  is 
done  with  apple  trees. 


PLOWING  IN   NARROW  "LANDS"  297 

This  grafting  may  be  done  on  established  vines  in  the  vine- 
yard or  nursery,  or  it  may  be  done  on  cuttings  or  young  vines 
handled  in  a  cutting  bench  in  the  gTeenhouse.  The  cleft  graft 
is  the  method  most  commonly  used,  but  the  various  types  of  the 
whip  graft  are  also  popular.  The  saddle-graft  is  sometimes 
used  on  established  roots.  The  work  is  more  difficult  than  graft- 
ing such  fraits  as  apples,  principally  because  of  the  character  of 
the  grape  wood,  and  some  special  points  have  to  be  observed  in 
the  work  to  make  it  successful,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  one 
who  is  successful  with  other  types  of  fruits  might  not  succeed 
in  grafting  the  grape. 

Starting  New  Varieties. — When  new  varieties  are  desired, 
the  grape  is  propagated  by  seeds,  and  the  resulting  plants  usu- 
ally bear  little  resemblance  to  the  parent  variety.  There  are, 
for  example,  many  white  grapes  among  the  seedlings  of  the 
Concord.  This  method  is  used,  of  course,  only  by  the  experi- 
mentalist who  is  willing  to  spend  time  and  money  in  the  hope 
of  getting  some  new  variety  of  value,  since  for  every  seedling 
Avhich  he  gets  that  has  merit  there  are  thousands  that  are 
absolutely  worthless. 

Preparing  the  Site. — If  possible  the  site  selected  for  the 
vineyard  should  be  set  to  some  cultivated  crop  the  year  previous 
in  order  that  the  soil  may  be  brought  into  a  fine  condition  for 
the  vines. 

The  land  for  the  vineyard  should  be  plowed  early  in  the 
spring  and  should  be  thoroughly  fitted.  Ordinarily  it  is  not 
best  to  plow  the  land  in  the  autumn  because  the  site  is  generally 
sloping,  and  on  such  land  there  will  be  too  much  wash  during 
the  winter  and  early  spring.  But  if  for  any  reason  a  site  has 
been  selected  that  is  not  sufficiently  sloping  to  make  washing 
dangerous,  then  it  would  be  best  to  plow  it  in  the  autumn. 

Plowing  in  Narrow  "  Lands." — Some  gi'owers  make  a  prac- 
tice of  plowing  the  field  where  the  vineyard  is  to  be  set  in 
narrow  "  lands,"  each  one  just  the  width  of  the  distance  between 
rows  of  the  future  vineyard,  say,  eight  or  ten  or  twelve  feet 
apart.  This,  of  course,  brings  dead  furrows  through  the  field 
at  the  distance  apart  that  the  rows  are  to  stand  and  in  the 


298  ESTABLISHING  THE  VINEYARD 

bottom  of  these  dead  furrows  a  subsoil  plow  is  run  once  or 
twice  to  break  up  the  subsoil  thoroughly.  The  vines  are  then 
set  along  this  furrow,  digging  out  with  a  shovel  whatever  addi- 
tional soil  may  be  necessary  to  make  a  hole  deep  enough  to  ac- 
commodate comfortably  the  roots  of  the  vines.  This  method 
has  much  to  commend  it,  since  it  insures  a  fine,  deep  reservoir 
for  soil  moisture  directly  underneath  the  vines. 

Careful  Preparation. — Whether  this  particular  method  of 
plowing  is  adopted  or  not,  the  soil  should  next  be  thoroughly 
pulverized,  using  a  disk  harrow  first,  to  be  followed  by  any  other 
types  of  harrows  that  may  be  available.  For  while  it  is  not 
necessary  to  give  quite  such  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  as 
is  given  for  strawberries,  yet  the  vineyard  is  a  long-term  crop 
and  it  will  never  again  during  the  life  of  that  vineyard  be 
possible  to  fit  the  soil  as  thoroughly.  If  the  land  is  not  properly 
prepared  it  may  easily  take  two  years  for  the  vines  to  make  up 
for  this  lack  of  a  few  hours'  or  days'  work  on  the  field. 

Spring  Planting. — Like  any  other  fruit  plantation,  the  vine- 
yard ought  to  be  set  early,  just  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  land 
can  be  plowed  and  fitted  after  the  soil  gets  dry  enough  to  work 
properly.  This  gives  time  for  the  newly-set  plants  to  settle  into 
place  and  become  established  before  the  warmth  of  advancing 
spring  forces  them  into  active  growth. 

Distances  for  Planting. — As  already  suggested,  the  distances 
at  which  the  vines  are  set  vary  considerably.  For  the  smaller- 
growing  varieties,  as  Delaware,  or  on  soils  where  the  growth  is 
not  expected  to  be  large,  or  with  very  severe  methods  of  prun- 
ing, nine  feet  apart  for  the  rows,  or  even  eight  and  one-half 
feet  with  vines  seven  or  eight  feet  apart  in  the  row,  are  common 
distances.  While  for  larger-growing  varieties  or  more  fertile 
soils  or  with  the  less  severe  methods  of  pruning,  rows  ten  or 
eleven  feet  apart  and  vines  nine  or  sometimes  ten  feet  apart  in 
the  row  is  the  usual  arrangement.  There  has  been  a  fairly 
well-marked  tendency  of  late  years  toward  closer  planting  of 
grapes,  but  it  seems  doubtful  whether  it  is  w^ell  to  crowd  them 
closer  than  the  smaller  distances  suggested. 

Establishing  the  Rows. — The  distances  having  been  decided, 


DIGGING  HOLES  AND  PLANTING  299 

the  land  is  staked  off  in  both  directions.  Since  the  trellis  will 
soon  prevent  cross-cultivation,  less  care  is  usually  exercised  than 
with  orchards  to  get  the  rows  accurate  in  that  direction.  Some 
method  of  range  stakes  which  can  be  set  up  and  used  to  sight  the 
vines  into  place  is  usually  sufficient.  In  the  direction  of  the 
rows  much  more  care  is  exercised,  but  even  here  the  range-stake 
method  is  usually  satisfactory.  Often  the  rows  are  furrowed 
out,  either  by  plowing  the  field  in  narrow  lands  as  already  sug- 
gested and  planting  in  the  dead  furrows,  or  else  by  special 
furrows  made  after  the  soil'  has  been  fitted. 

The  direction  in  which  the  rows  shall  run  is  often  decided 
by  the  shape  of  the  field  to  be  set,  but  several  considerations  are 
worth  keeping  in  mind  in  this  connection. 

1.  If  the  slope  is  steep  the  rows  should  run  across  the  slope 
of  the  hillside  in  order  to  reduce  the  washing  of  the  soil  as 
much  as  possible. 

2.  Other  things  being  equal  it  is  best  to  have  the  rows  run 
north  and  south,  as  this  gives  a  more  uniform  illumination  by 
the  sun,  giving  the  most  shade  to  the  fruit  when  the  sun's  heat  is 
most  fierce,  and  providing  equal  shade  for  both  sides  of  the  row. 

3.  Where  winds  are  strong  it  is  best  to  have  the  rows  run 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  most  severe  winds,  as  there  will 
thus  be  the  least  damage  from  the  winds. 

The  vines  should  be  carefully  heeled  in  on  arrival,  especial 
care  being  taken  to  tramp  the  soil  firmly  down  about  them  to 
prevent  their  drying  out.  But  even  then  it  is  well  not  to  allow 
them  to  stand  too  long,  but  to  get  them  set  out  permanently  as 
soon  as  possible. 

The  vines  are  prepared  for  setting  by  trimming  back  the 
roots  rather  severely  if  the  nurseryman  has  not  already  done 
this  (Figs.  154  and  157).  From  six-  to  eight-  or  possibly  ten- 
inch  roots  are  considered  ample,  the  shorter  lengths  being  used 
where  the  root  system  is  abundant.  The  top  is  cut  to  two,  or  at 
the  most  to  three,  buds. 

Digging  Holes  and  Planting.— The  holes  are  best  dug  with 
a  round-pointed  shovel  and  should  be  wide  enough  and  deep 
enough  to  accommodate  the  roots  comfortably.    Twelve  or  fifteen 


300  ESTABLISHING  THE  VINEYARD 

inches  wide  by  the  same  in  depth  will  usually  be  found  ample 
and  will  allow  room  for  a  good  quantity  of  surface  soil  to  be 
shoveled  back  into  the  bottom  of  the  hole  under  the  vine  to 
insure  a  good  start. 

The  vines  should  be  set  fairly  deep,  leaving  only  the  buds 
above  the  surface  when  the  soil  is  finally  all  filled  in.  There  is 
always  a  tendency  for  grape  vines  to  work  to  the  surface,  either 
by  being  heaved  up  by  frosts,  or  by  the  washing  away  of  the 
soil,  so  that  it  is  well  to  set  them  as  deeply  as  possible  and  still 
have  the  buds  above  the  surface  of  the  gTOund.  The  soil  should 
be  tramped  firmly  about  the  roots  except  that  the  surface  layer 
is  left  light  and  friable  as  a  mulch. 

No  Trellis  at  First, — During  the  first  season  it  is  usually 
customary  to  allow  the  vines  to  run  at  will  over  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  this  practice  is  sometimes  continued  during  the 
second  season,  but  by  the  third  season,  at  the  latest,  the  trellis 
ought  to  be  established. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  propagation  of  grapes  by  cuttings. 

2.  What  are  the  arguments  in  favor  of  one-year  and  two-year  grape  vines 

for  setting? 

3.  Describe  the  propagation  of  grapes  by  single-eye  cuttings. 

4.  By  layers. 

5.  How  and  why  are  grapes  grafted? 

G.  How  are  new  varieties  of  grapes  secured? 

7.  Describe  the  preparation  of  the  soil   for  a  vineyard. 

8.  What  distances  are  best  in  setting  a  vineyard? 

9.  How  would  you  lay  off  a  vineyard  in  your  own  locality  on  a  hillside 

sloping  to  the  southeast? 

10.  How  should  the  vines  be  handled  on  arrival  from  the  nursery? 

11.  How  would  you  prune  a  grape  vine  at  setting?         , 

12.  Describe  the  setting  of  a  grape  vine. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  THE  VINEYARD 

If  good  results  are  to  be  secured  from  the  vineyard  it  must 
be  given  thorough  cultivation.  All  authorities,  practical  as  well 
as  theoretical,  agi-ee  on  this  point. 

Plowing. — It  is  ordinarily  best  to  begin  operations  in  the 
spring  by  plowing  the  land  rather  shallow,  not  over  four  or  five 
inches.  This  can  usually  be  done  with  the  gang  plow  shown  in 
figure  2.  Some  growers  make  a  practice  of  going  through  the 
vineyard  ahead  of  this  gang  plow  and  throwing  one  furrow  to- 
wards the  vines  with  a  one-horse  plow  when  the  plowing  is  to  be 
done  towards  the  rows.  Or  if  the  plowing  is  to  turn  the  soil 
away  from  the  rows,  then  the  one-horse  plow  or  the  grape  hoe  is 
used  after  the  gang  plow  to  finish  up  along  the  rows.  In  either 
case  the  idea  is  that  one  can  get  closer  to  the  rows  with  the  one- 
horse  plow  or  the  grape  hoe  than  with  the  gang.  This  is  doubt- 
less true  and  the  practice  is  probably  a  good  one,  especially 
when  the  plowing  is  away  from  the  vines  and  when  it  is  con- 
sidered particularly  important  to  stir  all  the  soil.  On  the  other 
hand,  very  satisfactory  work  can  be  done  with  the  ^ng  plow 
alone,  and  certainly  when  the  plowing  is  towards  the  vines  it 
leaves  little  to  be  desired. 

Disking. — When  the  soil  is  rather  light  and  mellow,  and 
particularly  if  there  is  comparatively  little  material  to  be  turned 
under  (cover-crops,  weeds,  or  barnyard  manure),  the  disk  har- 
row is  often  substituted  for  the  plow.  Three  or  four  times  over 
the  land  M-ill  usually  leave  the  soil  in  good  condition.  But  under 
most  conditions  it  is  best  to  plow  rather  than  to  disk,  because 
^vith  the  gang  plow  the  vineyard  can  be  gone  over  very  rapidly, 
and  one  usually  gets  a  somewhat  better  job  than  with  the  disk. 

Tillage  Against  Root-worm. — It  is  a  common  practice,  and 
probably  a  good  one,  where  the  root-wonn  is  troublesome,  to 
plow  a  single  furrow  towards  the  vines  from  either  side,  just 
before  cultivation  is  stopped  for  the  season,  the  idea  being  to 

301 


302       CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  THE  VINEYARD 

induce  the  inserts,  which  pupate  in  the  soil,  to  form  their  cells 
higher  above  the  roots  than  they  normally  would.  Then  about 
June  15th,  or  earlier  in  the  southern  states,  this  ridge  is  thor- 
oughly worked  down,  thus  exposing  the  pupse.  This  practice 
itself  will  kill  many  of  them,  and  the  balance  are  open  to  the 
attacks  of  enemies. 

After  plowing,  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  fitted  with  the 
disk  harrow,  and  from  that  time  on  the  land  should  be  thor- 
oughly and  frequently  cultivated,  using  the  grape  hoe    (Fig. 


-^k^-l 


1  IG     I5f^  — The  firape  hoe  at  work  in  the  vine\  ird      Sue  h  in  implement  will  gre-itlv  reduce 
the  cost  of  handling  the  vineyard    since  there  will  be  little  need  of  hoeing 

158)  or  the  cultivator.  In  some  vineyards,  where  the  rows  are 
fairly  widely  spaced,  a  two-horse  cultivator  is  used. 

Shallow  Tillage. — In  all  cases,  whatever  the  implement  used 
in  the  work,  the  cultivation  should  be  shallow,  and  it  should  be- 
come more  shallow  as  the  season  progi-esses.  Of  course,  when 
plowing  or  disking  is  done  to  start  the  work  of  the  season,  this 
destroys  the  roots  to  a  certain  depth,  and  following  this  the 
cultivation  may  be  fairly  deep.  But  as  soon  as  growth  starts 
and  the  new  roots  begin  to  form  in  this  soil,  as  they  will  immer 
diately,  the  cultivation  should  be  made  more  shallow,  until  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  season  it  is  very  shallow  indeed. 

Preventing  a  Crust. — Just  how  often  to  cultivate  will,  of 


COMPANION  CROPS  303 

course,  depend  on  circumstances,  on  weather  conditions,  on 
weeds,  and  on  the  type  of  soil.  It  should  be  the  practice  to  get 
over  the  vineyard  after  every  rain  (unless  they  are  very  fre- 
quent indeed),  and  the  drier  the  season  the  more  important 
this  point  is.  The  best  practice  is  to  watch  conditions  and  get 
into  the  vineyard  with  the  cultivator  before  any  crust  can  be 
formed  in  the  drying  out  of  the  soil.  The  heavier  the  preceding 
rain  or  rains  have  been  the  more  heavy  and  solid  the  resulting 
crust  will  be,  and  therefore  the  more  important  it  will  be  to 
have  it  broken  up. 

Frequency  of  Cultivation. — Cultivation  ought  to  be  more 
frequent  in  dry  weather  than  at  any  other  time,  for  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  tliat  there  is  always  a  tendency  to  form  a  crust 
even  in  long  periods  without  rains,  the  soil  settling  down  gradu- 
ally and  transpiration  being  increased  thereby. 

Probably  a  good  rule  as  to  frequency  of  cultivation  is  to  get 
over  the  vineyard  once  in  every  ten  days  as  a  maximum  period, 
and  ofttnier  if  weeds  are  troublesome  or  if  rains  have  occurred. 

Level  Tillage. — By  all  means  let  the  cultivation  be  level. 
This  means  that  only  comparatively  small-toothed  implements 
should  be  used  for  the  work.  The  only  exception  to  this  rule 
would  be  where  such  a  weed  as  witch  (quack)  grass  has  become 
troublesome,  in  which  case  a  larger  toothed  cultivator,  or  even  a 
disk  harrow,  may  be  used,  but  it  should  be  followed  by  some 
implement  with  smaller  teeth. 

Cross-cultivation. — During  the  first  season  after  the  vines 
are  set  out  the  vineyard  may  be  cross-cultivated,  which,  of  course, 
reduces  very  decidedly  the  cost  of  keeping  it  clean.  Usually  it 
is  possible  to  get  through  with  the  cultivator  crosswise  for  a 
time  during  the  early  part  of  the  second  season  before  the  vines 
have  made  much  growth.  But  thereafter  it  will  be  possible  to 
cultivate  only  in  the  direction  of  the  rows,  and  the  work  in  the 
rows  will  have  to  be  done  with  hand  hoes  and  with  the  grape 
hoe.  A  man  who  is  skillful  with  the  latter  implement  can  reduce 
the  amount  of  hand  work  necessary  to  a  very  small  amount. 

Companion  Crops. — It  is  fairly  common  practice  in  some 
sections  to  grow  some  companion  crop,  such  as  cabbages  or  po- 


304       CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  THE  VINEYARD 

tatoes,  in  the  vineyard  during  the  first  season,  and  sometimes 
during  the  second  season.  It  is  a  question  just  how  wise  a 
practice  this  is,  and  the  answer  to  this  question,  like  that  to  a 
good  many  others,  depends  on  circumstances.  If  the  crop  gi-own 
is  one  that  requires  good  culture,  if  the  soil  is  in  first-class  con- 
dition, and  if  the  grower  is  a  good  farmer  who  keeps  his  work 
well  in  hand  (Fig.  159),  the  vineyard  will  probably  not  be  hurt 


[S9- — A  young  vineyard  inter-planted  with  raspberries.    This  is  intensive  cropping  and 
demands  careful  management  to  see  that  neither  crop  suiTers. 


any  by  the  companion  crop,  and  the  owmer  may  gain  some 
revenue  from  it.  But  if  any  or  all  of  these  conditions  do  not 
obtain,  then  it  is  very  probable  that  the  vineyard  may  be  dam- 
aged more  than  the  owner's  bank  acount  is  benefited.  In  vine- 
yards of  the  lower  Hudson  River  Valley  growers  often  use  such 
crops  as  currants,  gooseberries,  raspberries,  and  strawberries  as 
companion  crops.  These  perennial  crops  remove  too  much  mois- 
ture and  plant  food  at  the  very  season  that  the  grapes  need  them. 
They  also  lessen  the  amount  of  tillage  possible. 


USES  OF  A  COVER  CROP 


305 


Uses  of  a  Cover  Crop. — At  the  end  of  the  period  of  cultiva- 
tion it  is  the  common  practice,  and  generally  a  good  one,  to  seed 
down  the  vineyard  to  a  cover  crop.  The  three  principal  func- 
tions which  this  cover  crop  is  expected  to  perform  in  the  vine- 
yard are  (1)  to  add  humus  to  the  soil;  (2)  to  prevent  washing 
of  the  soil,  and  (3)  to  add  nitrogen.  These  are  all  important 
functions,  of  decided  value  to  tlic  vineyard,  and  usually  far  more 


i6o. — Buckwheat  as  a  cover  crop  in  the  vineyard, 
for  this  purpose. 


Buckwheat  is  one  of  the  best  crops 


than  offset  any  disadvantages  that  may  come  from  the  use  of  the 
cover  crop,  such  as  interfering  with  the  harvesting  of  the  crop. 
Humus  is  important  in  almost  any  soil,  but  especially  so  in  the 
types  that  are  usually  selected  for  grapes,  and  with  the  very 
thorough  cultivation  which  is  given  to  vineyards,  which  tends 
to  bum  out  the  organic  material  in  the  soil  very  rapidly.  The 
washing  of  the  soil  in  vineyards  is  sure  to  be  considerable  and 
is  often  very  serious,  owing  to  their  being  located  on  hillsides ; 
while  the  addition  of  nitrogen  through  cover  crops  is  very  de- 
sirable, since  one  must  have  a  vigorous  gi-owth  of  vines  if  the 


306      CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  THE  VINEYARD 

crop  of  fniit  is  to  be  good,  and  no  form  of  nitrogen  is  better  and 
none  so  cheap  as  that  secured  by  the  cover  crop. 

Crops  to  Grow. — Several  dili'erent  crops  are  popular  for  this 
purpose.  Among  the  best  are  buckwheat  (Fig.  160),  barley 
(Fig.  161),  rape  and  cowhoru  turnips,  among  the  non-nitrogen- 
ous crops;  and  crimson  clover  and  vetch  are  good  nitrogenous 


Fig.    i6i. — Barley  as  a  cover  crop  in  the  vineyard.    This  is  an  excellent  crop  for  the  purpose, 
giving  a  large  amount  of  growth  to  plow  under  for  humus. 

crops.     The  following  are  the  amounts  of  each  per  acre  which 
are  usually  sown : 

Buckwheat     1  bushel. 

Barley     1 J  bushel. 

Rape     2  to  3  pounds. 

Cowhorn    turnips     2  pounds. 

Crimson  clover   L5  pounds. 

Vetch    1  bushel. 

It  is  often,  in  fact,  usually,  best  to  use  a  mixture  of  two  of 
these  crops  if  one  is  to  secure  the  best  results.  A  half  bushel 
of  buckwheat,  with  6  or  8  pounds  of  crimson  clover,  or  15  or  20 


WHAT  FERTILIZERS  TO  USE  307 

pounds  of  vetcli,  will  make  an  admirable  mixture.  Or  barley 
may  be  substituted  for  the  buckwheat.  This  general  type  of 
mixture  is  best  because  it  contains  one  rank-growing  crop  to 
produce  the  humus,  and  one  low-gTowing,  nitrogen-gathering 
crop  to  prevent  the  soil  from  washing  and  to  add  nitrogen  to 
the  soil.  Cowpeas  are  good  for  summer  growth  in  most  states 
south  of  Massachusetts.  Burr  clover  is  good  for  winter  growth 
in  the  Gulf  States. 

Fertilizing. — The  practice,  theory,  and  recommendations  in 
reference  to  the  fertilizing  of  vineyards  are  very  variable  and 
even  chaotic,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  much,  if  any,  more 
so,  than  they  are  with  many  other  fruits. 

Certainly  it  is  safe  to  take  this  position  in  reference  to  the 
subject  that  until  all  other  factors  in  regard  to  the  handling  of 
the  soil  of  the  vineyard  have  been  brought  to  a  high  state  of 
eifecti\'eness  one  ought  not  to  spend  money  on  fertilizers.  If  the 
soil  has  been  poorly  prepared  in  the  spring;  or  if  it  is  indiifer- 
ently  cultivated  through  the  season  that  weeds  are  abundant  and 
thrifty;  or  if  the  land  is  poorly  drained,  then  money  spent  on 
fertilizers  is  largely  thrown  away.  At  least,  it  is  poor  policy 
to  put  money  into  fertilizers  until  the  soil  has  been  put  into 
cultivation  and  drainage,  so  that  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil 
may  be  fully  utilized.  But  all  this  might  be  said  with  equal 
truth  of  an  apple  orchard  or  a  strawberry  plantation. 

Having  attended  to  the  drainage  and  cultivation  and  prep- 
aration of  the  soil,  and  having  sprayed  and  pruned  the  vineyard 
so  that  the  foliage  is  healthy,  it  is  then  in  order  to  consider  the 
use  of  fertilizers,  and  if  after  all  this  has  been  done  the  vines 
are  not  making  a  good  growth  and  producing  good  crops  of  fruit, 
then  one  of  two  things  ought  to  be  done:  either  the  vineyard 
ought  to  be  pulled  out,  or  else  fertilizers  ought  to  be  used. 

What  Fertilizers  to  Use. — Having  decided  that  fertilizers 
are  necessary,  the  next  question  is  as  to  just  what  forms  and 
amounts  shall  be  used.  It  seems  probable,  from  a  study  of 
both  experiments  and  vineyard  practice,  that  nitrogen  is  more 
likely  to-be  needed  than  either  potash  or  phosphoric  acid.  If 
the  vines  are  not  making  a  good  growi;h  something  must  be 


308      CULTIVATING  AND  FERTILIZING  THE  VINEYARD 

done  to  stimulate  them,  and  the  cultivation  being  good,  the  use 
of  nitrogen  is  the  next  most  reasonable  step.  Bamvard  manure 
is  probably  the  most  popular  form  in  which  to  apply  nitrogen, 
and  a  light  annual  application,  at  least  on  the  lighter  soils,  will 
usually  bring  good  results.  Of  course,  it  also  carries  some 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  and  a  gi-eat  deal  of  humus,  all  of 
which  help.  Where  barnyard  manure  is  not  available,  nitrate 
of  soda  and  tankage  are  good  fonois  to  use. 

On  the  lighter  soils  some  potash  in  the  form  of  either  the 
muriate  or  the  high-grade  sulfate  is  likely  to  be  helpful,  but  it 
is  generally  not  needed  on  the  heavier  soils;  or  if  needed,  a 
smaller  quantity  will  be  sufficient,  and  it  is  better  applied  in  the 
foi-m  of  wood  ashevs.  On  most  types  of  soils  it  is  a  common 
custom,  and  probably  a  safe  one,  to  apply  some  phosphoric  acid, 
either  in  the  form  of  bone  meal,  acid  phosphate,  or  basic  slag. 

Soils  Differ. — Another  point  which  ought  not  to  be  overlooked, 
and  which  has  been  brought  out  very  forcibly  by  some  work  by 
the  New  York  Station  at  Geneva,  is  that  different  parts  of  the 
same  vineyard  will  probably  vary  greatly  in  their  fertilizer 
needs.  One  part  is  poor  and  gravelly  and  needs  all  elements  of 
the  fertilizer,  another  part  is  a  stony  soil  and  needs  only  humus 
or  perhaps  humus  and  phosphoric  acid,  while  a  third  part  is  a 
sandy  loam  and  needs  perhaps  only  potash  and  nitrogen. 

Doubtless  the  surest  and  best  way  to  decide  this  question  of 
fertilizing  vineyards  is  for  the  grower  to  experiment.  Try  one 
or  two  forms  of  nitrogen,  combined  with  some  acid  phosphate  or 
bone,  and  some  potash,  if  it  can  be  had,  and  note  results. 

In  the  meantime  the  writer  would  continue  to  use  fertilizers 
in  the  vineyard,  and  the  following  is  a  formula  which  has  been 
used  and  with  good  results : 

Basic  slag    300  pounds. 

High  grade  sulfate  of  potash 200  to  300  pounds. 

Tankage    200  pounds. 

Nitrate  of  soda    100  to  200  pounds. 

Three  hundred  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  or  bone  meal  may 
be  substituted  for  the  basic  slag. 


QUESTIONS  309 

These  amounts  are  per  acre  quantities,  and  the  rate  of  appli- 
cation may  well  be  varied  according  to  soil  conditions,  applying 
more  on  those  sections  of  the  vineyard  where  the  soil  is  poor  and 
the  gro\^i:h  of  vines  and  fruit  not  satisfactory,  and  less  on  those 
parts  where  conditions  are  better.  In  fact,  some  growers  make 
the  application  of  nitrogen  practically  a  per-vine  matter,  apply- 
ing it  as  a  separate  operation  from  the  other  fertilizers  and 
giving  each  vine  what  it  seems  to  need.  This  necessitates  good 
judgment  on  the  part  of  the  man  applying  it,  but  if  a  man  with 
the  requisite  judgment  is  available,  it  is  a  good  method. 

When  to  Apply  Fertilizers. — The  manure,  if  used,  and  if  it 
is  made  on  the  farm,  is  generally  applied  during  the  winter  and 
is  always  applied  before  the  vineyard  is  plowed.  The  other  fer- 
tilizers are  applied  broadcast  shortly  after  plowing  in  the  spring. 
The  best  and  most  economical  way,  if  the  soil  is  uniform,  is  to 
apply  them  with  a  fertilizer  distributor,  but  if  the  application 
is  to  be  varied  in  different  parts  of  the  vineyard,  of  course,  this 
cannot  be  done  and  one  must  necessarily  resort  to  application 
by  hand. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  plowing  of  a  vineyard. 

2.  How  would  you  fit  the  land  after  plowing? 

3.  Describe  the  ideal  tillage  for  a  vineyard. 

4.  Would  you  use  companion  crops  in  a  vineyard   of  your  own?     Why? 

What  crops? 

5.  Would   you    sow    a    cover    crop    in    a    vineyard?     What    crop    in    your 

section?     Why? 

6.  Ought  vineyards  to  be  fertilized? 

7.  What   is  a  good   fertilizer   formula   for  a  vineyard? 

8.  When  and  how  would  you  apply  fertilizers? 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 

In  no  other  fruit  has  the  pruning  been  reduced  to  so  exact  a 
science  as  with  the  grape.  Systems  of  training  have  been  de- 
veloped with  their  accompanying  methods  of  pruning,  so  that 
there  is  relatively  little  chance  for  tlie  exercise  of  judgment  in 
the  matter.  This  is  entirely  relative,  however,  and  there  is  still 
ample  opportunity  for  difference  between  a  grape  vine  pruned 
by  a  skilled  operator  and  one  pruned  by  a  novice.  But  as  com- 
pared with  an  apple  tree  or  a  plum  tree  the  pruning  of  a  grape 
vine  is  a  very  simple  matter  indeed. 

It  might  be  said  also  that  the  pleasure  and  interest  in  the 
work  of  pruning  have  likewise  decreased.  To  the  one  who 
likes  to  have  his  decisions  made  for  him  by  someone  else,  it  may 
seem  like  a  more  enjoyable  occupation,  yet  to  the  one  who  takes 
a  personal  interest  in  his  plants  the  operation  is  too  harsh,  and 
drastic  to  be  really  relished.  He  will  finish  pruning  many  a 
vine  with  the  conviction  that  he  has  treated  it  brutally  and  fre- 
quently that  he  has  ruined  it. 

Two  Important  Facts. — There  are  two  facts  which  must 
constantly  be  kept  in  mind  in  pruning  any  grape  vine  intelli- 
gently. These  are :  (1)  That  the  fruit  of  the  grape  is  home  near 
the  base  of  the  current  seasons  growth;  and  (2)  that  these 
shoots,  in  order  to  hear  fruit,  must  come  from  huds  on  last  sea- 
sons wood.  If  these  two  points  are  kept  in  mind  and  the  system 
of  training  to  be  used  is  understood,  one  cainiot  go  far  wrong- 
in  pruning. 

Placing  of  Flower  Clusters. — It  ought  further  to  be  said 
that  not  every  shoot  of  the  current  season  will  bear  fruit,  but 
that  when  fruit  is  produced  it  comes  on  this  wood.  The  bud  will 
start  into  growth  (Fig,  162)  in  the  spring  and  grow  for  a  node 
or  two  without  producing  anything  but  leaves;  then  will  come  a 
node  with  a  blossom  cluster  on  one  side  and  a  leaf  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  shoot  from  it.  The  next  node  or  joint  will  also 
310 


LEAVING  A  FEW  BUDS 


311 


bear  a  leaf  and  a  blossom  cluster,  but  their  positions  have  been 
reversed  from  those  at  the  previous  joint;  and  so  on  until  from 
one  to  four  clusters  have  been  produced,  after  which  the  shoot 
may  continue  to  grow  for  a  long  distance,  perhaps  as  much  as  ten 
or  fifteen  feet,  without  producing  any  more  blossoms.  The 
number  of  such  blossom  clusters  produced  (and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  their  arrangement)  depends  on  the  variety,  the  age  of 
vine,  the  botanical  species,  and  the  individual  winter  bud  (its 
size,  position  on  the  cane,  etc.). 


Fig.  162. —  Young  shoot  of  the  grape  showing  the  arrangement  of  the  clusters  at  the 
base  of  the  shoot.  Such  a  shoot  may  grow  on  for  many  feet,  but  the  fruit  is  borne  only  at  the 
first  few  nodes. 

Leaving  a  Few  Buds. — ^While  the  second  fact,  that  these 
bearing  shoots  arise  from  buds  on  the  canes  which  grew  last 
season,  may  have  a  few  exceptions,  they  are  very  few  indeed. 
If,  in  pmning,  one  removes  all  of  last  year's  wood  from  a  vine, 
he  need  expect  little  or  no  fruit.  There  will  be  some  unusually 
vigorous  shoots  sent  out  to  take  the  place  of  the  wood  removed, 
but  they  will  bear  no  blossoms.  Their  very  vigor  is  apparently 
against  this,  and  the  vine  bends  all  its  energies  to  renewing 
the  supply  of  wood. 

Since  it  is  true  that  one  must  save  last  year's  wood  in  order 
to  secure  any  fniit,  it  is  important  that  we  learn  to  distinguish 


312 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


the  wood  which  grew  last  season  from  the  older  wood.  Of 
course,  the  relative  position  is  a  strong  indication,  the  one-year 
wood  growing  out  from  the  two-year,  but  in  addition,  it  will  be 
found  that  last  year's  wood  has  a  smooth  bark,  while  on  the 
older  wood  the  outer  bark  has  become  loosened  and  shredded 
and  hangs  more  or  less  in  strips.  Figures  163  and  IG-i  illus- 
trate this  difference. 


Fig.    i63.^Part  of  a  young  grape  cane,  showing  the  type  of  wood  which  must  be  retained  in 
pruning  in  order  to  produce  fruit. 

Figure  162  shows  the  young,  growing,  fruit-bearing  shoot 
which  started  from  such  a  bud  as  is  seen  on  the  sides  of  the 
cane  showai  in  figure  163. 

Parts  Defined. — It  may  be  well  to  distingiiish  here  between 
a  few  terms  which  will  be  used  frequently  in  the  discussions 
which  follow  on  the  various  methods  of  training  and  pruning 
gi-apes.    The  four  important  ones  are  the  following : 

1.  A  slioot  refers  to  a  young  growing  branch  on  the  vine  and 
may  properly  be  applied  to  this  branch  during  its  period  of 
growth.  It  is  on  the  shoots  that  the  fruit  will  be  found 
(Fig.  162). 


FIRST  ^-EARS  OF  PRUNING  313 

2.  A  cane  refers  to  a  branch  which  grew  the  previous  season. 

3.  An  arm  is  an  older  branch  which  is  run  on  the  trellis  in  a 
horizontal  position. 

4.  A  trunl'  is  the  main  stem  of  the  vine  which  is  usually  in 
a  vertical  position. 

Of  course,  these  different  parts  are  likely  to  merge  gradu- 
ally into  each  other,  the  shoot  gradually  becoming  a  cane,  the 
cane  sometimes  being  used  as  an  arm  or  trunk,  and  so  on ;  but 
the  distinctions  are  useful  and  will  generally  hold. 


Fig.   164. — One  and  two-year  wood  of  the  grape.    Note  that  the  bark  is  smooth  on  the  one- 
year  section  and  shredded  on  the  two-year  part. 

The  First  Years  of  Pruning. — When  the  young  vine  is  set 
out  it  is  pruned  back  to  from  one  to  three  buds,  depending  on 
the  strength  of  the  vine  and  the  ideas  of  the  pruner.  Tools  are 
shown  in  figures  105  and  1G6.  And  after  a  yeai-'s  growth  it  is 
usually  pruned  back  just  as  severely,  viz.,  to  not  over  three  buds. 
As  a  result  of  this  very  severe  pruning  the  young  vine  will  usii- 
ally  make  a  very  strong  gro■^^i:h  and  may  be  ready  the  following 
year  to  be  put  on  the  trellis.  During  these  first  two  years,  how- 
ever, it  is  generally  allowed  to  straggle  over  the  gi'ound,  or  at 
most  (and  this  very  seldom)  is  tied  up  to  a  stake. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  third  season,  if  a  good  gi'owth  has 


314 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


been  made,  the  young  vine  is  brought  on  the  trellis  and  its 
training  for  the  desired  system  is  begun.     Just  what  position  it 


Fig.   165. — A  good  type  of  shears  for  pruning  grapes. 


Fig.    166. — A  small  saw  will  be  needed  when  heavy  trunks  are  to  be  taken  out  as  in  renewing 
vine  shown  in  figures  174  and  175. 


will  be  made  to  assume  at  this  time  will  depend  on  what  the 
system  of  training  is  to  be,  and  can  best  be  discussed  under  each 
of  the  different  systems. 

Spur  and  Renewal  Systems  of  Pruning. — Before  discussing 


SPUR  AND  RENEWAL  SYSTEMS  OF  PRUNING 


315 


tlie  individual  systems  of  training-  which  are  to  be  presented, 
one  other  general  question  ought  to  be  understood  thoroughly, 
and  that  is  the  difference  between  spur  and  renewal  systems  of 
pruning.  All  the  various  methods  of  pruning  can  be  classified 
under  one  or  the  other  of  these  two  systems.  In  the  spur  sys- 
tems the  required  amount  of  last  year's  wood  is  secured  by 
leaving  a  large  number  of  short  spurs  of  this  wood,  each  spur 
containing  two  or  three  buds  (Fig.  172),  so  that  if  a  particular 


Fig.    167. — Grape  vine  in  fruit  trained  on  the  high 


il  system. 


system  contemplates  the  retention  of,  say,  thirty  buds,  there 
will  be  about  ten  to  fifteen  spurs  saved.  With  the  renewal 
systems,  on  the  other  hand,  the  required  number  of  buds  is 
secured  by  retaining  fewer  but  longer  canes,  usually  from  two 
to  four.  In  the  four-cane  Kniffin  system,  for  example  (Figs. 
173  to  176),  if  thirty  buds  were  wanted,  they  would  be  on  four 
canes,  two  containing  about  ten  each,  and  two  five  each. 


The  foll( 


svstems  of  training  are  selected  because  th( 


are  types,  and  some  of  them,  at  least,  are  perhaps  more  generally 
used  than  any  others.     It  ought  to  be  understood,  however,  that 


316 


PKUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


every  section  (and  almost  every  grower)  develops  slight  modifi- 
cations, and  sometimes  fairly  radical  ones,  of  the  general  sys- 
tem in  use. 

I.  High  Renewal  System. — In  this  system,  which  is  well 
illnstrated  in  figures  107  to  170,  the  vine  is  cut  back  very 
severely,  only  two  canes  three  to  four  feet  long  being  retained 
each  year.    These  are  tied  on  the  lower  wire,  and  the  new  shoots. 


,    Fig.   i68. — A  grape  vine  trained  on  the  high  renewal  system,  before  pruning. 


as  they  grow,  are  tied  up  successively  to  the  second  and  third 
wires,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  season  the  vine  has  the  arrange- 
ment sliowai  in  figures  167  and  168. 

The  trellis  for  this  system  consists  of  three  wires,  the  lower 
one  20  to  30  inches  from  the  ground  and  the  other  two  about  18 
inches  apart.  The  two  canes  which  are  reserved  are  tied  to  the 
lower  wire,  as  shown  in  figure  170.  Then  as  the  young  shoots 
grow  they  are  tied  to  the  second  and  third  wires,  as  already 
ted.     This  requires  careful  watching  in  order  to  do  it  at 


ADVANTAGES  OF  HIGH  RENEWAL  SYSTEM  317 

just  the  right  time,  since  the  shoots  cannot  be  tied  until  they 
have  grown  somewhat  longer  than  the  distance  between  the  two 
wires.  On  the  other  hand,  if  allowed  to  gTOw  very  much  beyond 
this  leng-th  the  tendrils  begin  to  catch  on  the  wires  and  pulling 
them  loose  adds  decidedly  to  the  labor  of  tying,  besides  some- 
what injuring  the  shoots. 

When  the  young  vine  is  first  put  on  the  trellis  in  this  system 


Fig.   i6g. — The  same  vine  as  figure  i68,  after  pruning. 

it  is  pruned  back  to  a  single  cane,  the  longest  and  best  one  being 
selected.  This  is  brought  up  in  a  vertical  position  and  tied  to 
the  lower  wire,  and  is  then  bent  sharply  to  the  right  or  left, 
and  tied  along  this  wire,  two  or  three  additional  ties  being  used. 

The  principal  advantages  claimed  for  this  method  of  train- 
ing are  as  follows : 

1.  The  sunshine  and  heat  are  well  regulated,  so  that  the  fruit 
gets  about  the  right  amount.  The  question  of  the  desirability 
of  increasing  the  heat  will,  of  course,  vary  considerably  with  the 
section  of  the  country.    Where  heat  is  needed  to  insure  that  the 


318 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


croi>  will  ripen,  some  low  system  like  this  is  especially  desirable. 
In  sections  of  the  country  where  the  heat  is  intense,  some  of  the 
higher  systems,  as  the  Munson,  are  much  better,  since  they  get 
away  from  the  intensity  of  the  reflected  heat. 

2.   The  fruit  is  convenient  to  pick,  being  all  groA\ai  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  lower  wire. 


Fig.   170. — The 


vine  as  figures  t68  and  169  after  tying. 


3.  There  is  no  chance  of  the  clusters  of  fruit  becoming 
tangled  among  the  growing  shoots  and  little  danger  of  its  grow- 
ing around  the  wire  and  having  to  be  torn  to  pieces  at 
picking  time. 

4.  The  pruning  for  this  system  is  very  simple,  two  cuts 
being  about  all  that  require  any  judgment,  the  rest  being  merely 
routine  work. 

5.  It  retains  little  old  wood  and  not  very  much  young,  so 
that  most  of  the  vigor  of  the  vine  goes  into  the  fruit,  producing 
fine  clusters. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  PRUNING 


319 


There  are  three  disadvantages,  however,  which  may  be 
worth  mentioning: 

1.  It  requires  three  tyings,  and  the  hist  two  of  these  require 
that  the  vines  be  watched  carefully,  so  that  work  may  be  done 
at  just  the  right  time. 

2.  There  are  frequently  no  satisfactory  canes  at  the  two 
points  where  they  are  desired,  and  the  operator  must  adjust  his 
method  very  decidedly  to  meet  the  conditions,  being  even  forced 


-A  grape  vine  trained  on  the  horizontal- 


spur  system,  before  pruning. 


at  times  to  change  one  or  both  sides  of  the  vine  from  a  renewal 
to  a  spur  method. 

3.  The  fruit,  while  it  is  convenient  to  pick  because  the 
clusters  are  all  close  together,  is  so  low  that  it  requires  the  oper- 
ator to  work  in  a  stooping  posture,  which  becomes  tiresome. 

Directions  for  Pruning. — The  following  directions  will  be 
found  useful  in  deciding  how  vines  shall  be  piiined  on  the  high 
renewal  system : 

1.  Piiine  back  each  side  of  the  vine  to  the  first  strong  cane. 

2.  If  weak  canes  are  removed  near  the  trunk,  save  one  bud 
at  the  base  of  each  to  grow  a  cane  for  use  the  following  year. 


320 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


3.  Cut  back  canes  saved  to  three  feet. 

4.  Where  the  vine  has  two  trunks,  get  rid  of  one  of  them 
if  possible. 

5.  Cut  off  canes  which  are  retained  to  one-half  inch  beyond 
the  last  bud. 

II.  The  Horizontal  Arm  Spur  System. — This  is  well  shown 
in  figures  171  and  172.  Except  for  its  being  a  spur  system  of 
pruning  instead  of  a  renewal,  the  discussion  of  it  would  be 


Fig.    172. — The  same  vine  shown  in  figure  171,  after  pruning. 


practically  the  same  as  that  just  given  under  high  renewal. 
The  great  disadvantage  of  the  sjDur  method  of  pruning  is  that  so 
much  old  wood  is  always  retained  and  that  eventually  this  wood 
becomes  very  old  and  hard.  The  spurs  also  necessarily  tend  to 
elongate  a  joint  or  two  every  year  and  soon  become  so  long  as 
to  be  decidedly  objectionable,  as  will  be  seen  in  figure  172.  For 
these  reasons  this  system  is  relatively  little  used  at  present  as  a 
regular  custom,  and  spur  pruning  is  only  practiced  when  the 
operator  is  forced  into  it  in  some  other  method  of  training 
through  lack  of  good  renewal  canes. 

III.  Four-cane   Kniffin   System. — This  is  one  of  the  most 


FOUR-CANE  KNIFFIN  SYSTEM 


321 


common  and  popular  methods  of  training  in  the  northeastern 
grape  section.  The  method  is  well  shown  in  figures  173  to  IT 6. 
The  trellis  consists  of  two  wires,  the  lower  one  usually  about 
three  and  one-half  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  upper  five  and 
one-half  feet  or  six  feet.     In  starting  a  young  vine  on  this 


'•  w** 

1 

Ff 

f^.^-; 

Fig.    173. — Grape 


1  fruit  trained  on  the  four-cane  Kniffin  system. 


method,  a  strong  cane  is  secured  and  is  carried  vertically  to  the 
top  wire  and  then  bent  sharply  to  the  right  or  left  and  tied  to 
this  wire.  As  soon  as  possible  the  vine  is  developed  into  a 
double  T,  as  shown  in  figure  176.  Thereafter  each  year's 
pnining  consists  in  getting  it  back  as  nearly  as  may  be  to  this 
shape,  retaining  on  the  upper  wire  two  canes  about  three  feet 
in  length,  and  on  the  lower  wire  two  canes  of  about  half 
that  length. 
21 


322 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


Points  to  Observe  in  Pruning.— The  following  directions 
will  bring  out  the  principal  points  to  be  observed  iu  pruning  on 
this  system: 

1.  Save  the  first  strong  cane  on  each  arm.  Be  sure  that  this 
is  one-year  wood. 

2.  Cut  the  two  upper  canes  about  three  feet  long  and  the 
two  lower  ones  about  one  and  one-half  feet  long. 


fi 

■^ 

/ 

^^x^^T^ 

> 
^ 

M^,^J| 

K^2i 

r- 

l/>^/^'^'j^^B 

^ 

\  ■  jm''     ■! 

^^H 

]£_ 

^^ 

^i|||^          ■ 

m 

1 

IMWfciiii 

Fig.   174. — A  grape  vine  trained  on  the  four-cane  Kniffin  system,   but  in  need  of  renewal. 
The  previous  season  two  trunks  were  allowed  to  remain  to  provide  for  this  renewal. 

3.  If  weak  canes  are  removed  nearer  the  main  trunk  than 
those  saved,  retain  one  bud  at  the  base  of  each  one  to  grow  a  new 
cane  for  use  the  following  year. 

4.  Be  sure  that  the  tip  of  each  cane  saved  is  cut  back  to 
live  wood. 

5.  In  case  there  is  no  strong  cane  on  any  particular  arm 
within  a  reasonable  distance  of  the  trunk  (say,  one  and  one-half, 
feet),  use  the  spur  method  on  that  arm. 

6.  Cut  off  canes  retained  one-half  inch  beyond  the  last  bud. 

7.  Renew  arm  or  trunk  where  desirable  and  possible. 


POINTS  TO  OBSERVE  IN  PRUNING 


Fu..    i75.--The 


ine  as  shown   in    fij^uro  174,  with    the  old    trunk    removed  and  the 
vine  pruned. 


Fig.   176, — Same  vine  as  shown  in  figures  174  and  175,  after  pruning  and  tying. 


324 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


The  principal  advantages  claimed  for  this  system  are 
the  following: 

1.  There  is  relatively  little  labor  to  it,  since  the  vines  take 
care  of  themselves  once  they  have  been  prnned  and  tied  up  each 
spring.  Some  people  have  been  unkind  enough  to  call  it  the 
lazy  man's  system. 

2.  It  is  a  renewal  svstem. 


Fig.   177. — Grape  vine  in  fruit  trained  on  the  one-wire  or  two-cane  Kniffin  system. 


3.  Vines  grown  on  this  system  wall  produce  a  large  amount 
of  good  fruit. 

4.  The  fruit  usually  receives  about  the  right  amount  of 
sun  and  heat. 

5.  There  is  no  summer  tying. 

6.  The  fniit  is  at  a  convenient  height  to  pick,  neither  so  low 
as  to  require  the  operator  to  bend  over,  nor  so  high  as  to  tire  the 
arms  in  reaching  up  to  it. 

The  chief  disadvantages  of  the  four-cane  Kniffin  system  are : 

1.   The  fruit  is  likely  to  get  tangled  in  the  wires  and  shoots. 

This  results  from  the  fact  that  the  growing  shoots,  instead  of 


DISADVANTAGES  OF  FOUR-CANE  KNIFFIN  SYSTEM      325 


— A  grape  vine  trained  on  the  one-wire,  or  two-cane  Kniffin  system,  before  pruning. 


Fig.   179- — The  same  vine  as  shown  in  figure  178,  after  pruning  and  tying. 

drooping  down  from  the  wires,  as  they  are  often  represented  as 
doing  in  diagrams,  really  grow  along  the  wires  crossing  each 
other  and  the  wires  frequently.  This  makes  a  network  in  -which 
the  growing  clusters  are  very  likely  to  get  entangled,  so  that  they 
have  to  be  badly  broken  up  in  picking  them. 


326  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 

2.  It  retains  too  miicli  wood  for  the  best  fruit  with  some 
varieties.  Of  course,  this  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by  cutting 
back  the  four  canes  saved  very  severely. 

3.  The  overlapping  vines  may  give  too  much  shade. 

But  on  the  whole,  it  is  a  very  satisfactory  method  of  train- 
ing and  is  used  (either  in  the  regular  method  here  described  or 
in  some  modification)  by  a  great  many  men  who  are  not  lazy. 
....  -.        ^      ,  .....  ,^ 


Fig.    i8o. — Grape  vine  in  truit,  trained  on  the  umbrella  system. 

IV.  The  two-cane  or  one-wire  Kniffin  system  is  essentially 
the  same  as  the  four-cane  Kniffin  except  that,  as  the  name  im- 
plies, it  carries  only  half  as  much  wood.  The  single  wire  is 
placed  at  three  to  four  feet  from  the  ground  and  the  two  canes 
are  each  about  three  feet  long.  It  is  a  better  system  than  the 
four-cane  for  those  varieties  which  do  better  with  less  wood,  or 
for  the  gi'ower  who  wishes  to  grow  a  somewhat  better  quality, 
though  a  less  quantity,  of  fruit.  It  is  illustrated  in  figures 
177  to  179. 

V.  The  umbrella  system,  which  is  well  illustrated  in  figures 
180  to  183,  is  a  modification  of  the  Kniffin,  It  is  a  renewal  sys- 
tem, with  two  canes  saved  each  year,  but  instead  of  these  two 


UMBRELLA  SYSTEM 


327 


Fig.   i8i. — A  grape  viae  grown  and  trained  on  the  umbrella  system,  before  pruning. 


Fio.    182. — The  same  vine  as  figure  181,  after  pruning. 


canes  being  tied  out  horizontally  on  the  wires,  thev  are  started 
on  the  npper  wire  and  bent  dawn  to  the  lower.  The  great  ad- 
vantage of  this  manner  of  tying  the  cane  is  that  the  buds  along  it 
start  more  evenly.  There  is  less  of  the  tendency  (always  seen 
more  or  less  in  plants)  to  pnsh  most  vigorously  from  the  ter- 


328  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 

minal  and  nearby  buds,  while  those  farther  back  remain  dor- 
mant or  push  slowly. 

The  trellis  for  this  system  consists  of  two  wires,  the  lower 
one  tw^o  and  one-half  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  upper  one 
one  and  one-half  feet  above  this. 

When  young  vines  are  iirst  put  on  the  trellis  with  this  system 
the  best  cane  available  is  taken  and  pnined  as  long  as  possible. 
It  is  then  carried  direct  to  the  upper  wire  and  tied  there.  From 
this  point  it  is  curA'ed  outward  and  downward  and  tied  again  to 
the  lower  wire. 


Fig.   183. — The  same  vine  as  figures  181  and  182,  after  tying. 

Pruning  for  the  Umbrella  System. — The  following  direc- 
tions for  the  pruning  of  this  system  will  be  found  useful : 

1.  Prune  back  each  side  of  vine  to  a  strong  cane  which  starts 
near  the  trunk,  and  at  about  the  height  of  the  upper  wire. 

2.  Leave  this  cane  long  enough  to  extend,  in  a  curved  posi- 
tion, down  to  the  lower  wire  about  three  feet  from  the  trunk. 

3.  This  cane  should  have  from  10  to  15  buds. 

4.  Where  no  strong  cane  can  be  had  spur-prune  the  old  arm. 

5.  Where  there   are  two   trunks   get  rid   of  one   of  them 
if  possible. 

In  tying,  the  trunk  should  be  tied  to  the  lower  wire  and  to 
the  upper  wire  if  it  reaches  it.     The  t\Vo  canes  should  each  be 


ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  MUNSON  SYSTEM  329 

tied  to  the  upper  wire  and  then  curved  down  and  tied  to  the 
lower  wire  at  a  point  about  three  feet  away  from  the  trunk,  the 
tie  being  close  to  the  end  of  the  cane. 

This  system  has  about  the  same  advantages  as  given  under 
the  Kniffin  system,  with  the  additional  one,  as  suggested,  that 
the  buds  start  more  evenly,  and  personally  the  writer  is  very 
partial  to  it. 

VI.  The  Munson  system  has  been  selected  as  a  type  for  the 
overhead  systems  because  it  is  the  best  kno^vn  and  most  widely 
used,  and  there  are  probably  no  others  that  are  any  better. 

The  trellis  for  this  system  consists  of  three  wires.  The 
posts  are  six  feet  high  above  the  ground  and  at  the  top  is  nailed  a 
cross-piece  about  two  and  one-half  feet  long.  One  wire  is  run 
along  either  end  of  this  cross-bar,  and  the  third  is  fastened  to  the 
posts  about  twelve  inches  bcloM^  the  other  two,  or  in  some  cases  is 
run  through  holes  bored  in  the  posts.  The  young  vine  is  pruned 
to  a  single  cane  which  is  carried  vertically  to  the  lower  wire  and 
tied.  It  is  then  bent  sharply  to  the  right  or  left  and  tied  along 
this  wire.  The  method  of  pruning  and  training  in  mature  vines 
is  well  shown  in  figures  184  to  186.  The  bearing  canes,  two  to 
four  in  number,  are  tied  along  the  middle  wire,  and  the  new 
shoots  as  they  develop  hang  over  the  two  outside  wires.  This 
particular  vine  shown  in  figures  185  and  18G  is  not  ideal  in 
shape  because  there  are  two  trunks  at  the  upper  end,  but  one  of 
these  could  be  removed  another  year  when,  more  new  wood  had 
been  developed  from  the  upper  part  of  the  main  trunk,  or  it 
might  be  removed  now  if  the  minimum  amount  of  new  wood 
is  desired. 

The  advantages  of  the  Munson  system  are  enumerated  here: 

1.  That  the  fruit  hangs  free  from  wires,  canes  or  leaves,  and 
hence  docs  not  get  rubbed,  but  develops  perfect  clusters. 

2.  That  in  very  hot  countries  the  fruit  escapes  somewhat 
from  the  reflected  heat. 

3.  That  such  plants  as  currants  and  gooseberries,  which  will 
stand  a  good  deal  of  shade,  may  be  grown  underneath.  This 
would  probably  not  be  done  very  frequently  in  commercial  plan- 
tations, but  is  an  excellent  plan  for  home  gardens. 


330 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


Fig.   184. — Grape  vine  in  fruit,  trained  on  the  Munson  system 


ERECTING  A  TRELLIS 


331 


4.  It  is  a  renewal  system. 

5.  It  is  easy  to  cultivate,  since  there  are  no  low  canes  and 
shoots  to  interfere. 

The  disadvantages  are  the  following : 

1.  That  in  cool  climates  the  fruit  does  not  get  enough  heat. 

2.  That  it  exposes  the  vines  to  the  winds.     Both  of  these  ob- 


-Grape  vine  trained  on  the  Munson  system. 


jections  (one  and  two)  can  be  obviated  somewhat  by  using  lower 
posts,  and  this  is  frequently  done,  making  them  only  four  feet 
above  the  gi-ound. 

3.  It  is  an  awkward  height  to  pick,  bringing  the  arms  at  the 
shoulders  in  such  a  position  that  the  operator  tires  easily. 

4.  The  trellis  is  rather  expensive. 

It  remains  to  say  a  word  about  trellises  in  general. 
Erecting  a  Trellis. — The  end  posts  are  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant factors  in  a  good  trellis.     They  should  be  heavy  posts  to 


332  PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 

begiu  with,  and  should  be  set  deeply,  three  feet  being  none  too 
deep.  If  possible,  select  a  post  with  a  knot  or  enlargement  near 
the  lower  end.  If  this  cannot  be  had,  nail  one  or  two  pieces  of 
board  about  three  or  four  inches  long  near  the  bottom  end  of  the 
post.  This  will  assist  materially  in  preventing  the  post  from 
being  drawn  up  by  the  strain  of  the  wires.     In  addition,  these 


Fig.  i86. — Same  vine  as  shown  in  figure  185,  after  pruning.  One  of  the  trunks  shown, 
preferably  that  at  the  right,  might  be  removed  if  the  minimum  amount  of  new  wood 
IS  desired. 

end  posts  should  be  carefully  braced.  The  brace  should  be  long 
enough,  so  that  it  approaches  a  horizontal  position,  making  a 
wide  angle  with  the  post,  and  should  rest  at  the  lower  end 
against  another  post  or  a  stake  (Fig.  187).  This  position  re- 
duces the  tendency  to  lift  the  end  posts  as  will  be  done  when  the 
brace  is  more  nearly  upright,  making  a  narrow  angle  with  the 
end  post,  as  shown  in  figure  188. 

The  wire  used  varies  with  the  system  of  training  and  with 


ERECTING  A  TRELLIS 


333 


the  district.  The  most  common  size  is  ^o.  12,  which  in  some 
sections  is  used  altogether.  A  better  plan  is  to  use  a  heavier 
wire,  No.  9  or  No.  10,  on  the  part  of  the  trellis  where  there  is 
the  most  weight,  and  No.  12  where  there  is  less  strain.  This 
would  mean  using  No.  9  or  No.  10  for  the  upper  wire  in  the 
Kniffin  systems  and  the  Umbrella,  and  for  the  lower  wire  in  tbe 
high  renewal,  horizontal  ami  spur,  and  Munson  systems,  since 
these  are  the  points  where  the  gi-eatest  weight  of  vines  will  come. 


Fig.    187. — A  good  type  of  bracing  for  the  vineyard.     The  braces  are  long  and  make  a  wide 
angle  with  the  posts.     Such  a  brace  has  little  tendency  to  lift  the  posts. 


There  is  some  argument  for  using  the  heavier  wire  throughout, 
since  it  stands  up  under  the  strain  better,  requiring  less  attention. 

While  the  plain  iron  wire  is  more  commonly  used  than  the 
galvanized,  it  is  a  question  whether  the  greater  cost  of  the  latter 
will  not  be  justified  by  its  longer  life. 

In  stapling  tbe  wires  to  the  posts  rather  heavy  and  long 
staples  are  best,  those  of  No.  10  wire,  one  and  three-quarter 
inches  long,  being  preferable  unless  the  posts  are  of  very  hard 
wood,  in  which  case  one  and  one-half  inches  is  long  enough. 
They  should  never  be  driven  in  tightly,  but  should  be  left  loose 
enough  to  allow  of  the  wire  being  pulled  through  them  readily, 


334 


PRUNING  AND  TRAINING  THE  GRAPE 


since  it  will  be  necessary  to  tighten  the  wires  each  spring  to  take 
np  the  slack  wire  caused  by  the  stretching  of  the  wires  and  the 
give  from  the  posts.  The  wires  should  also  never  be  stapled  to 
the  end  posts,  but  each  wire  should  be  wound  around  the  post 
once  and  then  twisted  back  upon  itself,  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
loosened  at  the  annual  spring  tightening  of  the  wires. 

An  ordinary  wire  stretcher,   such  as  is  used  in  building 
wire  fences,  is  better  than  any  of  the  patent  devices  for  tight- 


FlG.   i88. — A  poor  type  of  bracing.    These  braces  are  too  short  and  are  placed  so  as  to  make 
too  acute  an  angle  with  the  end  posts.     Such  bracing  is  sure  to  lift  the  posts. 

Vase  or  goblet-pruned  vines  are  commonly  found  in  Cali- 
fornia and  other  regions  where  the  European  varieties  are  grown. 
Trellises  are  used  with  only  a  few  varieties.  A  heavy  trunk  is 
developed  by  first  pruning  to  a  height  of  15  to  25  inches.  The 
second  year,  one  cane  is  allowed  to  grow  and  is  pruned  to  form 
branches  during  the  summer.  This  is  cut  back  to  form  the  first 
permanent  spur  or  finger.  Year  by  year  other  spurs  are  formed 
and  the  number  gradually  increased  to  suit  the  strength  of 
the  plant. 


QUESTIONS  335 

Muscadine  grapes  for  home  use  are  found  trained  on  arbors 
where  they  are  too  often  neglected.  They  thrive  best  when 
systematically  pruned  just  after  the  leaves  fall.  Two  forms  of 
wire  trellis  are  recoumiended  by  growers:  (1)  The  three-wire 
trellis  with  wires  at  heights  of  about  2,  3,  and  4  feet,  the 
Kniffin  system  of  pruning  being  used.  (2)  A  canopy  trellis  of 
three  wires ;  the  pruning  is  of  the  umbrella  form. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  does  pruning  the  grape  compare  with  that  of  other  fruits? 

2.  What  are  the  two  important  principles  to  keep  in  mind  when  prnning 

grapes  ? 

3.  Where  do  you  find  the  clusters  of  grapes  on  a  vine? 

4.  Define  a  shoot;  a  cane;  an  arm;  a  trunk. 

5.  How  would  you  prune  a  grape  vine  the  first  and  second  seasons? 
G.  Describe  and  compare  the  spur  and  renewal  systems  of  pruning. 

7.  Describe  the  High  Renewal  system  of  pruning  and  training. 

8.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  system? 

9.  Describe    the   Horizontal    Arm    Spur    system    of    pruning   and   training 

the  grape. 

10.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  this  system? 

11.  Describe   the   Four-cane    Kniflin    system    of   pruning   and    training   tlie 

grape. 

12.  Is  this  a  good  system? 

13.  What  are  the  objections  to  it? 

14.  Discuss  the  Two-caiie  Kniffin  system. 

15.  Discuss  the  Umbrella  system. 

IG.  Describe  the  Munson  system  of  pruning  and  training  the  grape.    Where 
is  this  system  most  useful? 

17.  Describe  the  making  of  a  vineyard  trellis. 

18.  Which    of    the    systems    described    would    you    select    for    your    own 

vineyard  ?     \Miy  ? 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
INSECTS,  DISEASES  AND  SPRAYING  OF  GRAPES 

Gkapes  have  their  full  share  of  insects  and  diseases,  and 
many  of  them  are  of  the  first  magnitude.  Books  on  economic 
entomolog^^  catalog  as  high  as  twenty-five  or  thirty  inseots 
which  are  likely  to  be  more  or  less  troublesome  in  the  vineyard ; 
while  the  list  of  those  plant  diseases  which  are  likely  to  be  found 
attacking  the  grape,  though  less  extensive  than  that  of  insects, 
runs  up  ta  ten  or  a  dozen. 

From  this  list  it  may  be  in  order  to  select  four  or  five  of  the 
most  important  insects  for  discussion  in  this  chapter,  though  in 
some  sections  many  of  those  omitted  may  be  of  more  importance 
than  the  ones  selected. 

The  Grape  Root-worm. — To  begin  at  the  bottom  we  may 
start  with  the  grape  root-worm,  which  is  perhaps  as  common  and 
destructive  in  gi'ape  sections  as  any  one  insect,  losses  from  its 
ravages  having  been  estimated  as  high  as  two  million  dollars 
and  over  for  a  single  season. 

The  adult  beetle  is  a  small,  gi'ayish-bro\\Ti  insect  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  It  emerges  from  its  cell  in  the 
earth,  where  it  has  passed  the  winter,  from  the  latter  part  of 
June  to  well  on  towards  the  last  of  July.  The  insects  begin 
feeding  on  the  grape  leaves  at  once,  and  in  bad  cases  continue 
until  the  leaves  are  almost  entirely  consumed.  In  less  severe 
outbreaks  they  merely  eat  long,  somewhat  connected  holes  in  the 
leaves,  but  in  any  case  the  function  of  the  leaves  is  seriously 
affected.  In  a  short  time  the  females  begin  depositing  their 
cylindrical,  yellowish- white  eggs  under  the  loose,  shreddy  bark 
of  the  tmnk  and  old  canes.  In  the  course  of  a  week  or  two 
the  eggs  begin  to  hatch  and  the  young  grubs  drop  to  the  ground 
and  work  their  way  down  to  the  roots  of  the  vines,  where  they 
at  once  begin  feeding,  eating  the  small,  fibrous  roots  first,  but 
later  attacking  even  the  main  roots  in  which  they  eat  out  holes  and 
burrows.  In  badly  infested  vines  the  root  system  is  almost 
entirely  destroyed,  so  that  the  leaves  fall  and  the  fruit  shrivels 
336 


ROSE  CHAFER  337 

and  eventually  drops.  In  less  severe  cases  the  vine  may  merely 
take  on  a  sickly  appearance,  but  even  here  the  value  of  the  crop 
is  seriously  lessened.  Attacking,  as  this  insect  does,  both  the 
leaves  and  the  roots  it  can  ruin  a  line  vineyard  in  a  very 
short  time. 

Remedies  for  Root-worm.— By  far  the  most  efficient,  the 
cheapest,  and  most  satisfactory  method  of  controlling  this  insect 
is  through  the  use  of  poisons  to  kill  the  adult  insects  while  they 
are  feeding  on  the  foliage.  Arsenate  of  lead,  at  the  rate  of 
three  pounds  of  paste  or  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  powder  per 
fifty  gallons  of  water,  sprayed  very  thoroughly  upon  the  vines 
as  soon  as  the  first  insects  begin  to  appear,  is  the  most  common 
line  of  treatment.  It  should  be  done  very  thoroughly,  indeed, 
as  any  spraying  must  to  be  effective,  and  the  upper  surface  of 
the  leaves,  particularly  on  the  growing  shoots,  should  be  espe- 
cially well  sprayed,  since  this  is  where  the  bulk  of  the  feeding- 
is  done.  Sweetening  the  spray  adds  to  its  palatability  for  this 
insect  and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  add  a  gallon  of  molasses 
to  each  fifty  gallons  of  spray. 

In  addition  to  attacking  the  adult  stage  in  this  way  there  is 
also  an  opportunity  to  combat  the  insect  in  the  pupal  stage.  The 
insect  winters  over,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  larval  stage  in 
little  cells  in  the  soil  and  here  it  transforms  to  the  pupal  stage 
early  in  June.  If  these  cells  can  be  broken  up  by  stirring  the 
soil  many  of  the  insects  will  be  killed.  As  already  suggested, 
it  is  the  custom  in  many  vineyards  to  throw  a  furrow  towards 
the  row  at  the  last  of  the  cultivation  season.  In  this  way  the 
insects  are  induced  to  form  their  cells  in  the  soil  much  higher  up 
where  they  can  be  more  readily  destroyed  in  cultivation.  It  is 
the  custom  to  give  a  very  thorough  stirring  of  the  soil  along  the 
rows  about  the  middle  of  June  (or  earlier  in  southern  states), 
using  both  the  cultivator  and  the  hand  hoe  to  make  sure  that 
all  the  cells  possible  are  broken  up. 

These  two  lines  of  treatment  will  usually  keep  the  root- 
worm  in  check,  provided  that  the  vineyard  is  well  cared  for  in 
other  ways. 

Rose  Chafer. — Another  most  troublesome  insect,  particularly 
22 


338        INSECTS,  DISEASES  AND  SPRAYING  OF  GRAPES 

in  sections  where  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  is  the  rose  chafer 
or  rose  bug.  This  is  a  good-sized  insiect,  perhaps  half  an  inch 
long,  light  grayish  brown  above  and  greenish  below,  with  long 
straggling  logs  and  generally  clnmsy  appearance.  They  attack 
many  other  plants  besides  the  gi*ape,  and  usually  appear  very 
suddenly  and  often  in  countless  numbers.  In  bad  attacks  they 
are  so  numerous  it  is  easy  (though  not  pleasant)  to  collect  a 
handful  of  them  from  a  single  small  twig.  They  feed  on  the 
blossoms  and  young  fruit  first,  but  soon  attack  the  foliage,  leav- 
ing it  badly  shredded  and  sometimes  almost  entirely  destroyed. 
The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  soil,  preferably  the  lighter  soils, 
and  on  hatching  the  young  grubs  feed  on  the  roots  of  grasses 
and  other  plants.  They  winter  over  as  larva  and  enter  the  pupa 
stage  in  little  earthen  cells,  about  four  or  five  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  in  May  or  June,  emerging  about  a  month 
later  as  adults. 

Remedies  Against  Rose  Chafer. — This  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  insects  to  fight.  They  do  not  like  poison  and  will  avoid 
eating  it  if  possible.  Removing  them  by  hand  and  destroying 
them  is  often  recommended,  but  is  altogether  too  expensive  to  be 
commercially  practicable.  Spraying  as  just  recommended  for 
the  root-worm  seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  treatment,  but 
more  poison  must  be  used ;  8  to  10  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead 
paste  or  4  to  5  pounds  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  in  50  gal- 
lons of  water  will  be  found  none  too  much,  and  the  molasses 
should  always  be  added  to  make  it  more  palatable.  Thorough 
and  rather  deep  cultivation  of  the  soil  while  the  insects  are  in 
tJie  pupa  stage  is  also  efl'ective.  The  avoidance  of  very  light 
soils  is  helpful,  since  the  insect  is  rarely  troublesome  on  the 
heavier  soils. 

Grape  Leaf-hopper. — A  third  insect  attacking  the  leaves  is 
the  leaf-hopper.  This  is  a  small,  yellowish-white  insect,  very 
active,  hopping  or  flying  readily  when  disturbed.  It  feeds  on 
the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  almost  entirely,  puncturing  the 
tissues  and  sucking  the  juice,  which  causes  the  leaves  to  turn 
light  color  at  first,  in  the  spots  attacked,  and  later  the  entire  leaf 
turns  brown  and  may  fall. 


POISONING  THE  BERRY  MOTH  339 

The  insects  winter  over  as  adults  in  gi-ass  or  trash,  either 
about  the  vineyard  or  in  nearby  fields,  coming  out  early  in  the 
spring  to  feed  on  any  foliage  that  may  be  available,  and  migrat- 
ing to  the  vineyard  again  when  the  gi-ape  leaves  are  well  ex- 
panded. This  fact  suggests  one  method  of  attack,  namely,  clear- 
ing up  all  such  places  either  in  or  near  the  vineyard,  fence 
comers,  bnish  patches,  and  weedy  or  grassy  spots. 

Spraying  for  Leaf-hoppers. — Since  it  is  a  sucking  insect  it 
cannot  be  killed  by  stomach  poisons,  but  must  be  attacked  with 
some  contact  poison.  Xicotine  sulfate  at  the  rate  of  one  part  to 
1000  of  water  seems  to  be  best.  This  must  be  applied  very  thor- 
oughly, as  only  those  insects  which  are  thoroughly  wet  will  be 
killed.  A  rather  coarse  spray  is  most  effective,  and  especial 
attention  should  be  given  to  reaching  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaves. 

Grape  Berry  Moth. — An  insect  which  is  frequently  very  de- 
structive to  the  fruit  of  the  grape  is  the  berry  moth,  a  little 
brownish  moth  about  a  half  inch  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings.  The 
insect  winters  over  in  the  pupa  stage  in  a  cocoon  attached  to  the 
decaying  leaves  in  the  vineyard.  From  this  cocoon  the  adults 
emerge  in  the  spring  and  lay  their  eggs  on  or  near  the  blossom 
clusters.  These  soon  hatch  and  the  larvae  feed  on  the  blossom 
and  buds,  making  a  slight  web  among  the  blossoms.  This  first 
brood  is  rarely  a  large  one  and  does  not  attract  much  attention, 
though  each  insect  does  much  more  damage  than  the  later  broods, 
since  they  confine  their  attention  to  the  blossoms  and  small 
berries  and  destroy  a  much  larger  number  per  insect  than  is  the 
case  with  later  broods  when  the  berries  are  much  larger.  The 
most  abundant  brood  is  the  second  one,  but  there  is  also  a  third 
and  smaller  brood  in  the  late  summer  and  autumn.  The  second 
and  third  broods  pupate  in  peculiar  little  cocoons  attached  to 
the  leaves,  or  sometimes  inside  the  berries. 

Poisoning  the  Berry  Moth. — Spraying  is  the  only  effective 
means  of  attacking  this  insect,  and  the  first  brood  is  by  all 
means  the  best  "  point  of  attack."  Arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate 
of  three  pounds  of  paste  or  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  powder 
to  fifty  gallons  of  water  is  the  most  satisfactoi-y  material  to  use. 


340        INSECTS,  DISEASES  AND  SPRAYING  OF  GRAPES 

The  first  application  should  be  made  about  the  time  the  fruit 
sets,  a  second  one  ten  days  later;  and  in  bad  cases,  a  third,  ten 
days  after  the  second.  The  spraying  should  be  very  thorough, 
using  a  nozzle  giving  a  fine  spray  and  a  pump  furnishing  a  high 
pressure  (Fig.  189), 

Grape  Phylloxera.— This  insect  is  a  vei-y  bad  form  of  the 
plant  louse.  The  varieties  of  European  grapes  are  most  subject 
to  attack,  but  some  varieties  of  labrusca  are  also  attacked.  The 
root-attacking  lice  gather  in  great  numbers,  suck  juices,  cause 


. — Barrel  pump  equipped  for  spraying  in  vineyard. 


nodules  to  form,  and  death  of  the  vines  usually  follows.  The 
only  successful  remedy  is  to  grow  varieties  subject  to  attack  on 
stocks  of  resistant  species.  Varieties  of  Sand  Grape  (rupestris) 
and  the  River  Grape  (riparia)  are  best  for  use  as  stocks. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  GRAPE 

Black  Rot. — Turning  now  to  fungous  diseases  we  find  the 
list  headed,  so  far  as  destruction  is  concerned,  by  the  black  rot, 
which  is  so  serious  an  enemy  that  it  has  driven  the  vineyard 
industry  out  of  some  sections  altogether,  and  is  always  a  dreaded 
enemy  in  any  grape-growing  region. 


FIGHTING  BLACK  ROT  341 

It  attacks  the  yoimg  shoots,  the  leaves,  tendrils,  and  fruit, 
but  is  far  more  conspicuous  on  the  fruit  than  elsewhere.  The 
disease  winters  over  on  any  of  the  diseased  tissues  of  the  previ- 
ous season,  but  especially  on  the  mummied  fniit,  and  usually 
makes  its  appearance  first  on  the  leaves.  It  appears  here  as 
brownish  spots,  roughly  circular  in  outline,  which  in  time  de- 
velop blackish  margins  and  which  may,  in  bad  attacks,  often 
coalesce,  foi-ming  larger,  irreg-ular  patches.  On  the  canes,  ten- 
drils, leaf  stalks,  and  veins  the  disease  appears  as  small 
sunken  areas. 

Soon  after  its  appearance  on  the  leaves  it  will  be  found  on 
the  fruit,  appearing  first  as  a  minute  spot,  but  spreading  very 
rapidly  until  the  whole  berry  is  affected.  As  the  disease  pro- 
gresses on  the  berry  the  skin  remains  intact,  but  the  berry 
shrivels  and  in  a  short  time  becomes  the  dry,  hard,  mummied 
fruit  so  characteristic  of  this  disease. 

Black  rot  is  very  greatly  influenced  by  the  w^eather ;  a  period 
of  rains,  wdth  wann,  muggy  spells  intervening,  is  particularly 
favorable  to  it,  while  dry  weather  is  likely  to  check  it. 

Fighting  Black  Rot. — Several  methods  of  attack  are  advised 
in  combating  this  disease.     Some  of  the  best  are  as  follows : 

1.  Destroy  all  mummied  fruit  and  as  far  as  possible  all 
other  diseased  tissues,  cleaning  up  the  vineyard  very  thoroughly 
after  pruning  and  burning  everything  that  is  taken  out. 

2.  Pull  all  shoots  which  tend  to  start  about  the  base  of 
the  vines. 

3.  Plow  early  and  carefully,  so  as  to  cover  all  berries  or 
twigs  which  may  not  have  been  collected  and  burned. 

4.  Practice  very  thorough  cultivation  so  as  to  keep  down 
all  weeds. 

5.  Spray  the  vineyard  thoroughly  wath  Bordeaux  mixture, 
using  the  4-4-40  formula  and  applying  it  as  follows : 

First  spraying.  Just  as  the  buds  are  sw^elling  in  the  spring, 
spraying  the  trellis  as  well  as  the  vines. 

Second  spraying.     Just  before  the  blossoms  open. 

Third  spraying.     After  the  blossoms  fall.      A  fourth  and 


342        INSECTS,   DISEASES  AND  SPRAYING  OF  GRAPES 

sometimes  a  fifth  application  is  made  at  intervals  of  abont  two 
weeks  in  the  case  of  bad  attacks. 

Downy  Mildew. — Second  in  importance  amona;  diseases  may 
perhaps  be  i)laced  the  downy  mildew,  though  in  some  sections 
and  some  seasons  the  powdery  mildew  is  the  more  serions  of 
the  two. 

Practically  all  of  the  green  parts  of  the  vine  are  liable  to 
attack,  bnt  the  disease  is  by  far  the  most  conspicuous  on  the 
leaves  and  the  fruit.  On  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  the  diseased 
areas  appear  first  as  irregular,  yellowish  spots  which  soon  be- 
come covered  by  a  velvety  or  downy  growth  which  is  the  fruiting 
stage  of  the  disease  and  which  will  be  found,  under  a  magnifying 
glass,  to  be  made  up  of  little  stalks  which  arise  from  the  diseased 
tissues  beneath.  On  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  the  diseased 
areas  are  yellowish  at  first  and  later  may  turn  brown  and  die. 

If  the  berries  are  attacked  while  young  the  disease  appears 
as  a  gi'ayish  coating  similar  to  that  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves,  and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  name  "  gray  rot  "  which  is 
often  applied  to  this  disease.  In  case  the  berries  are  not  at- 
tacked till  they  are  more  mature  the  diseased  area  is  brownish 
in  color  and  the  disease  is  sometimes  called  the  "  brown  rot " 
from  this  appearance.  The  berries,  in  either  case,  shrivel  up 
but  do  not  become  dry  and  hard  as  is  the  case  in  black  rot. 

On  the  canes  the  appearance  is  much  like  that  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaves,  and  usually  the  areas  are  sunken. 

Spraying  as  indicated  for  black  rot  will  usually  control  this 
disease,  the  first  two  applications  not  being  necessary,  however, 
when  this  disease  alone  is  to  be  combated.  ' 

As  the  disease  passes  the  winter  on  the  old  leaves  about  the 
vineyard  anything  which  can  be  done  to  get  rid  of  these  is 
probably  helpful. 

The  powdery  mildew  differs  from  the  downy  in  several 
particulars,  but  especially  in  that  it  attacks  both  surfaces  of  the 
leaves  and  that  it  is  more  superficial,  not  entering  the  tissues 
as  deeply. 

It  attacks  all  parts  of  the  vine  above  ground.  On  the  leaves 
it  shows  first  as  whitish  spots  which  on  close  examination  appear 


ANTHRACNOSE  343 

as  though  dusted  with  a  white  powder.  The  leaves  take  on  a 
mottled  appearance  and  later  these  spots  may  coalesce  and  a 
large  part  of  the  leaf  become  affected.  The  leaves  are  dwarfed 
in  their  gi'owth  and  often  distorted  in  shape,  and  the  whole  vine, 
if  badly  attacked,  looks  dwarfed  and  discouraged,  and  there  is  a 
distinctly  moldly  odor  to  it.  Blossom  clusters  which  are  at- 
tacked fail  to  set  fruit,  young  berries  drop  from  the  clusters, 
and  older  berries  develop  irregularly  and  unnaturally,  or  they 
may  crack  open,  or  brown  spots  may  develop  which  later  take  on 
the  characteristic  whitish  appearance  of  the  disease. 

Remedies  for  Powdery  Mildew. — The  fungus  develops 
most  rapidly  in  moist  weather  and  a  wet  soil  favors  it,  so  that 
everything  possible  should  be  done  to  keep  the  vines  dry  and 
to  give  them  plenty  of  light  and  air.  With  this  in  view  the  vines 
should  be  planted  at  good  distances,  trellises  should  be  run  in 
reference  to  winds,  the  slope  of  the  land  and  the  sun,  so  as  to 
give  the  best  ventilation.  Methods  of  pruning  and  training- 
should  be  such  as  to  distribute  the  growing  shoots  well,  and  all 
trees  which  might  shade  the  vineyard  should  be  removed. 

Spraying  as  outlined  for  black  rot  will  usually  keep  this 
disease  in  check,  and  this  is  generally  all  that  is  attempted.  But 
dry  sulfur  is  more  effective  than  Bordeaux,  and  in  serious 
outbreaks  it  is  usually  either  substituted  for  Bordeaux  or 
the  vines  are  dusted  with  sulfur  in  addition  to  being  sprayed 
with  Bordeaux. 

If  sulfur  alone  is  used  the  first  dusting  is  given  when  the 
shoots  have  reached  a  length  of  six  or  eight  inches,  a  second 
one  about  blossoming  time,  and  others  at  intervals  of  a  few 
days  to  two  weeks,  depending  on  the  weather  (whether  dry  or 
rainy),  until  five  or  six  applications  have  been  given. 

Anthracnose,  or  Bird's  Eye  Rot  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
attacks  all  parts  of  the  vine,  but  is  most  common  and  con- 
spicuous on  the  fruit  and  the  shoots.  On  the  shoots  it  produces 
long  sunken  areas  or  cankers,  which  may  girdle  the  stem  but 
usually  do  not.  Later  the  centers  of  these  cankers  turn  grayish 
and  the  wood  underneath  takes  on  a  burned  appearance.  On 
the  fruit  the  disease  produces  a  peculiar  round  spot,  dark  brown 


344        INSECTS,   DISEASES  AND  SPRAYING  OF  GRAPES 

in  color  with  a  whitish  center  and  a  dark  border  which  may  have 
a  red  line  running  through  it.  In  time  the  fruit  either  becomes 
distorted  and  cracks  open,  or  it  may  be  killed  entirely,  drying 
out  and  becoming  mummied. 

Spraying  as  for  black  rot  will  aid  greatly  in  controlling  the 
disease,  but  the  following  additional  points  are  recommended: 
First,  exercise  great  care  to  prune  out  and  destroy  all  affected 
canes.  Second,  use  a  dormant  spray  on  the  vines.  This  is  most 
commonly  lime-sulfur  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  of  the  concen- 
trated to  eight  gallons  of  water,  though  some  crther  spray's 
are  used. 

Necrosis. — One  more  disease  may  perhaps  be  included  here, 
partly  because  of  its  importance  and  partly  because  it  is  so  dif- 
ferent from  those  already  discussed.  This  is  necrosis  or  dead- 
arm.  All  parts  of  the  vine  except  the  root  are  affected,  but  it  is 
most  serious  on  the  arms  or  trunks  because  when  these  are  killed 
the  whole  vine  or  half  the  vine,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  destroyed. 
On  the  canes  the  disease  shows  as  small  brown  or  blackish  spots, 
more  or  less  sunken,  which  may  be  numerous  enough  to  cover 
most  of  the  surface.  Diseased  berries  are  affected  like  black 
rot,  showing  first  as  a  rot  and  later  becoming  mummied.  But 
when  tiie  disease  is  on  the  trunk  or  arm  its  effect  is  most 
noticeable.  In  this  case  the  vine  may  fail  to  leaf  out  in  the 
spring,  having  died  during  the  winter;  or  it  may  leaf  out  and 
then  the  leaves  wither  and  die ;  or  in  less  severe  attacks  the 
leaves  may  be  merely  dwarfed  or  unhealthy  in  appearance ;  or 
at  times  the  vine  may  be  apparently  normal  up  to  midsummer 
and  then  the  leaves  and  fruit  may  shrivel  and  die. 

Control  of  Necrosis. — In  attempting  to  control  this  disease 
the  principal  line  of  attack  lies  in  destroying  diseased  vines  or 
parts  of  vines.  Everything  possible  should  be  done  to  locate  such 
vines.  In  the  spring  pruning  all  suspicious  vines  should  be  pulled 
out  and  destroyed,  or  less  severe  cases  may  be  cut  back  to  the 
ground ;  or,  if  it  is  merely  an  arm,  they  may  be  cut  back  to  the 
main  trunk  and  renewed.  Vines  which  have  shown  any  indica- 
tions of  the  disease  during  the  summer  should  be  carefully 
marked,  and  when  the  pruning  is  done  should  be  examined  with 


QUESTIONS  345 

especial  care,  and  either  severely  pruned  or  removed  altogether. 

Since  it  is  thought  that  the  disease  may  be  carried  by  prun- 
ing tools;  care  should  be  taken  to  use  special  tools  for  working 
on  diseased  wood  or  else  to  disinfect  before  using  them  on 
healthy  wood. 

Spraying  as  for  black  rot  is  of  decided  assistance  in  holding 
this  disease  in  check. 

With  proper  care  along  the  above  lines  the  vineyard  may  be 
kept  free  from  the  disease,  or  one  which  has  become  affected 
may  be  entirely  freed  from  the  disease. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  grape  root  worm,  its  life  history  and.  control. 

2.  Describe  the  rose  chafer.     What  remedies  ^vollld  yoii  use  for  it? 

3.  Have  you  had  any  experience  with  the  grape  leaf -hopper?     Tell   all 

you  can  about  it. 

4.  Discuss  the  grape  berry  moth. 

5.  Describe    the    phylloxera.     Is  it    troublesome    in    the    United    States? 

Where  is  it  serious? 
0.  Discuss  the  black-rot  of  the  grape. 

7.  Describe  the  downy  mildew.     How  would  you  control  it? 

8.  How  does  the  powdery  mildew  differ  from  the  downy? 

9.  What  is  grape  anthracnose?     How  can  it  be  controlled? 

10.  What  is  necrosis  in  grapes?     How  can  it  be  controlled? 

11.  Which  of  these  diseases  of  the  grape  have  you  seen?     Of  the  insects? 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  GRAPES 

The  most  interesting  part  of  grape  growing,  whether  it  be 
commercial  or  amateur,  is  the  harvest  time.  Then,  in  a  com- 
paratively brief  time,  one  reaps  the  rewards  for  his  labor,  or 
pays  the  penalty  for  his  neglect. 


Fig.   190. — The  Climax  grape  basket  ready  for  covering.    This  basket  is  in  almost  universal 
use  as  a  package  for  grapes. 

A  fair  crop  may  be  expected  from  the  vineyard  the  third 
year  if  it  has  made  a  good  gTOwth,  and  a  better  one  the  fourth 
year,  while  by  the  fifth  year  the  vineyard  is  usually  in 
full  bearing. 

And  since  so  much  depends  on  this  brief  period,  everything 
possible  should  be  done  in  advance  to  make  the  work  of  that 
period  run  as  smoothly  as  may  be.  It  is  a  most  excellent  man- 
ager who  can  prepare  with  sufficient  thoroughness  so  that  bas- 
kets and  shears  and  trays  and  boxes  and  wagons  and  pickers  and 
346 


LARGER  PACKAGES 


347 


packing  sheds,  aud  numerous  other  things,  may  all  be  on  hand 
or  arranged  for  in  advance. 

The  ordering  of  packages  is  the  item  which  needs  to  he  pro- 
vided for  the  longest  beforehand.  Prices  are  almost  certain  to 
advance  as  the  season  advances,  and  even  if  they  do  not  it  is 
safer  and  better  to  have  the  packages  on  hand. 

Climax  Grape  Baskets. — Packages  differ  considerably,  ac- 
cording to  the  locality  and  according  to  the  market  to  which  one 
caters;  but  by  far  the  most 
common  package  is  the  so- 
called  Climax  basket  (Figs. 
100  and  191).  Two  sizes  of 
these  are  in  general  use,  the 
4-pound  size  for  the  earlier  or 
higher-priced  varieties,  and 
the  8-pound  size  for  the  stan- 
dard and  lower-priced  varie- 
ties. These  baskets  have 
much  to  commend  them  from 
almost  every  standpoint. 
They  are  well  known,  attrac- 
tive, and  convenient  to  carry ; 
they  hold  a  quantity  of  fruit 
which  is  about  right  for  the 
average  family  and  for  which 
the  grower  can  charge  a 
higher  price  per  pound  and  still  find  a  ready  sale  than  he 
could  for  larger  packages.  They  pack  together  well  whether 
it  be  in  loading  onto  a  wagon,  in  packing  a  few  baskets  together 
for  an  express  shipment  (Fig.  191),  or  in  loading  a  car. 
In  any  of  these  cases  two  baskets  are  placed  side  by  side  at 
the  bottom  and  the  next  two  on  top  of  these,  with  the  handles 
of  the  bottom  pair  projecting  up  between  the  pair  above,  and  so  on. 

Larger  Packages. — In  sections  where  grapes  are  sold  for 
grape-juice  (and  this  is  coming  to  be  of  more  and  more  impor- 
tance), or  where  they  are  used  for  wine,  some  type  of  box  or 
tray  is  used  instead  of  a  basket.     The  most  conmion  receptacle 


Fig.  igi.— a  ten-basket  package  of  Climax  bas- 
kets (Fig.  190)  ready  for  shipment  by  express. 


348  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  GRAPES 

for  this  purpose  is  a  tray  holding  from  20  to  30  pounds  of  fruit. 

In  some  sections  for  local  trade,  and  in  the  California  dis- 
trict for  manv  of  the  grapes  sold  for  table  use,  a  flat  till  basket 
without  handles  is  used.  In  case  these  baskets  are  to  be  shipped 
they  are  crated,  usually  four  baskets  to  a  crate.  For  strictly 
local  trade  they  can  be  filled  considerably  above  the  basket  and 
make  a  very  attractive  package  (Fig.  192). 

For  the  cheaper  grades  of  grapes  which  are  sold  locally  to 
housewives,  for  either  jelly  or  grape  juice,  the  ordinaiy  14- 


FiG.    192. — The  till  basket  packed  for  strictly  local   trade.      Such  a  package  will  always 
attract  buyers. 

quart  peach  basket  is  often  used  (Fig.  193).  It  will  hold  about 
25  pounds  and  makes  a  cheap,  convenient,  and  generally  satis- 
factory package.  It  is  not  so  satisfactory  for  shipment  and  is 
not  much  used  for  that  purpose,  holding  too  large  a  quantity  of 
fruit  to  carry  well. 

The  proper  condition  of  ripeness  for  picking  is  much  more 
difficult  to  decide  upon  in  the  case  of  grapes  than  with  most 
other  fruits.  In  the  first  place,  nearly  all  varieties  color  long- 
before  they  are  ripe,  some  varieties  as  long  as  three  or  four 
weeks.  In  the  second  place,  grapes  do  not  ripen  up  and  im- 
prove in  quality  after  they  are  picked  as  many  other  fruits  do ; 


AVOID   HANDLING  BERRIES 


349 


the  quality  must  be  there  when  the  fruit  is  cut  from  the  vines  or 
there  never  is  any  quality.  For  these  reasons  the  question  of 
whether  the  fruit  is  ripe  enough  to  pick  must  be  settled  by  the 
foreman  and  not  left  to  the  pickers.  With  most  varieties  the 
stems  of  the  clusters  will  turn  brown  and  shrivel  a  little  before 
they  are  ripe  enough  to  pick.  This  indication,  with  some  testing 
of  the  quality  by  eating  a  few  berries,  will  decide  the  question  of 
when  to  begin  picking. 

If  this  precaution  is  not  taken  a  great  many  grapes  will  be 
harvested  before  they  have 
developed  any  quality,  and 
some  of  the  early  varieties 
have  little  enough  quality  at 
best.  Moreover,  there  is  al- 
ways a  temptation  to  cut  the 
early  varieties  quickly  and 
get  them  on  the  market  while 
the  price  is  high.  The  result 
of  these  two  factors  (yield- 
ing to  this  temptation  to  get 
ahead  of  one's  competitors 
and  lack  of  care  in  investiga- 
ting the  ripeness  of  the  fruit) 
is  that  many  grapes  go  on  the 
market  with  so  little  quality 
that  they  spoil  the  demand  for  later  and  better  varieties. 

Grapes  should  always  be  dry  when  they  are  picked.  There 
should  be  little  deviation  from  this  rule  except  for  very  local 
markets  where  they  are  to  be  used  almost  immediately.  The 
clusters  should  be  handled  just  as  little  as  possible.  These  two 
points  should  be  insisted  upon.  With  such  a  delicate,  tender 
fruit  as  grapes,  any  bruising  or  dampness  is  likely  to  start 
decay  and  ruin  the  whole  package. 

Avoid  Handling  Berries.— The  picker  takes  hold  of  the 
cluster  by  the  stem  and  with  a  pair  of  shears  cuts  the  stem  and 
then  lays  the  cluster  on  the  tray  or  in  the  basket.  In  this  way 
the  berries  are  not  touched  or,  at  most,  are  touched  very  little. 


Fig.  193. — The  14-quart  peach  basket  used 
for  the  cheaper  grades  of  grapes  which  are  to 
be  sold  locally  for  jelly  or  grape  juice. 


350  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  GRAPES 

and  the  bloom  is  therefore  not  disturbed.  If  the  grapes  are 
black  and  the  bloom  is  heavy  this  will  make  a  great  dilference 
in  the  attractiveness  of  the  fruit,  for  such  grapes  will  show  every 
spot  where  they  have  been  touched  by  the  fingers,  or  the  shears 
or  the  basket.  Clusters  which  have  been  handled  much  are  not 
nearly  so  beautiful  as  those  with  the  bloom  intact. 

Picking  and  Packing. — In  the  harvesting  of  the  fruit  two 
general  methods  are  in  vogue.  In  one  case  the  grapes  are  cut 
and  packed  into  baskets  in  the  vineyard  ready  for  market,  and 
in  the  other  they  are  cut  and  placed  in  trays  and  are  taken  to 
the  packing  house  to  be  later  packed  into  baskets.  Several  ad- 
vantages are  claimed  for  each  method.  The  principal  advantage 
of  the  field  packing  is  that  it  lessens  the  expense,  and  this  is 
such  an  important  advantage  that  where  the  crop  of  grapes  is 
well  grown,  with  few  defective  berries  that  need  to  be  cut  out, 
the  method  is  very  largely  used  and  in  some  sections  is 
almost  universal. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  packing  in  the  sorting  house 
are:  (1)  The  more  skillful  operators  may  be  put  on  that  par- 
ticular operation  and  so  get  better  work.  (2)  It  allows  of  re- 
moving the  defective  berries  wdiich  cannot  so  well  be  done  in 
the  field.  (3)  The  poor  clusters  can  better  be  separated  from 
the  good  ones  and  put  into  different  packages  to  be  used  for 
jelly,  juice,  or  wine.  (4)  After  the  fruit  has  wilted  it  packs 
into  the  baskets  better  and  with  less  danger  of  breaking  either 
clusters  or  berries. 

Where  the  grapes  are  packed  in  the  vineyard  a  stand  is 
usually  provided  of  a  convenient  height,  so  that  the  pickers 
do  not  have  to  stoop  to  reach  it,  and  on  this  the  baskets  are 
placed  for  filling. 

A  pair  of  shears  is  used  for  cutting  the  grapes  (Fig.  194) 
and  the  baskets  are  filled  well  above  the  edge,  placing  the  clusters 
usually  in  two  layers,  though  this  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
variety.  As  the  baskets  are  filled  they  are  placed  on  the  ground 
under  the  vines  where  they  will  be  out  of  the  sun  and  are  later 
gathered  up  and  taken  to  the  packing  house.  For  this  purpose 
a  wagon  with  good  springs  is  absolutely  imperative.     Many  a 


SETTLING  AND  COVERING 


351 


ton  of  beautiful  gi-apes  has  been  ruined  in  hauling  from  the 
vineyard  to  the  packing  house,  though  the  distance  might  be 
only  a  few  rods.  Racks  are  provided  on  the  wagon  so  that  sev- 
eral tiers  of  baskets  may  be  hauled  at  one  load. 

Care  in  Packing. — The  packing,  whether  done  in  the  vine^ 
yard  or  at  the  packing  house,  should  be  done  with  the  greatest 
care  in  order  to  keep  the  baskets  clean  and  attractive.  A  few 
broken  gi-apes  on  the  tray  or  rack  where  the  packing  is  being 
done  may  completely  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  neatest  and 
most  handsome  package  made. 


Fig.   194. — Type 


scissors  used  in  cutting  grapes.      The  curving  jaw  prevents  the  stem 
from  slipping. 


Settling  and  Covering. — At  the  packing  house  the  baskets 
are  stored  for  a  day  or  more  to  allow  the  fruit  to  wilt  and  to 
settle  aown  more  or  less  in  the  baskets.  As  a  result  of  this 
combined  wilting  and  settling  it  is  possible  to  press  the  grapes 
down  low  enough  so  that  the  covers  (which  are  merely  flat 
pieces  of  thin  board  cut  to  the  right  shape)  can  be  slipped  over 
the  baskets  and  fastened  in  place  by  two  staples. 

If  the  grapes  are  to  be  packed  at  the  packing  house  they  are 
cut  as  above  described  and  placed  upon  trays  which  are  then 
hauled  to  the  packing  house,  using  the  same  precautions  to  keep 
them  out  of  the  sun  and  dust,  and  not  to  bruise  them  in  hauling. 


352  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING  GRAPES 


Fig.    igs. — Harvesting  gr^ipLS  m  t.i.i>         fin-,  type  of  tray  is  only  used  in  handling  grapes  for 
local  trade. 


Fig.    196. — Rack  uicd  in  carr\ mt,'  j,'rapfS  truin  the  vincy^ 


icari<y  packing  house. 


QUESTIONS  353 

These  trays  are  then  piled  up  in  tiers  in  the  storerrooms,  and 
the  grapes  are  allowed  to  wilt  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours, 
and  sometimes  for  several  days.  This  depends  somewhat  on  the 
variety,  it  being  possible  to  hold  those  sorts  which  do  not  shell 
badly  longer  than  those  which  do ;  it  also  depends  on  the  weather, 
dry  weather  naturally  hastening  the  process,  and  on  the  venti- 
lation and  other  conditions  of  the  storage  house. 

Where  the  vineyard  is  located  close  to  the  storage  house,  or 
for  smaller  operations  where  only  a  comparatively  few  baskets 
of  grapes  are  harvested  at  a  time,  a  hand  rack  is  often  used  on 
which  the  trays  are  placed  as  the  grapes  are  cut  (Fig.  195)  and 
with  which  they  are  brought  into  the  packing  house  (Fig.  196). 

Taking  to  Market. — From  the  packing  house  the  grapes  go 
to  market  under  various  conditions.  From  the  larger  vineyard 
sections  they  are  shipped  out  by  the  carload,  using  refrigerator 
cars.  For  more  local  markets  they  may  go  by  team  direct  to  the 
wholesale  market;  while  for  still  more  local  trade  they  are 
taken  direct  to  the  grocery  or  fruit  store  which  is  to  sell  them 
to  the  consumer. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  State  the  relation  between  age  of  vines  and  yield  in  young  vineyards 

of  your  region. 

2.  Give  your  judgment  on  the  preparation  for  harvest  in  some  vineyards 

you  have  seen. 

3.  Where  are  grape  containers  to  be  purchased?     Give  some  addresses  or 

tell  how  to  get  them. 

4.  Have  you  seen  Climax  baskets  of  fruit  handled  by  express  men?  Describe 

the  handling  and  stacking. 

5.  Describe  the  different  grape  packages  you  have  seen.     Give  adaptations 

and  advantages  of  each. 

6.  How   would  you   judge   the   proper   condition   of   ripeness   for   picking 

the  grape  crop  ? 

7.  \Vliat  cautions  and  directions  would  you  give  to  a  gang  of  pickers? 

8.  Which  of  the   plans  of  picking  and   packing  have  you   seen?      Which 

are  best?     Why? 

9.  What  are  some  causes  of  unclean  or  otherwise  unattractive  packages 

of  grapes  you  have  seen? 

10.  What  is  the  value  of  wilting  before  covering? 

11.  What  are   the  methods   of   transporting   to  market?     Give  your   own 

observations  if  possible. 
23 


APPENDIX 

PROJECTS,   PRACTICE  WORK.   FIELD   AND    LABORATORY 
EXERCISES 

Since  the  writer  has  hoped  that  this  vohime  might  be  useful 
to  his  fellow-teachers  of  fruit-growing,  ir  seems  worth  while  to 
insert  here  a  brief  discussion  of  fruit  practice  work  in  general, 
and  of  some  specific  exercises  which  might  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  fruits  discussed  in  this  volume. 

There  is  no  question  as  to  the  value  of  practice  work  in  con- 
nection with  fruit-gTowing  courses  (or  almost  any  other  courses, 
for  that  matter).  Some  subjects  can  be  taught  better  than  others 
without  the  help  of  practical  work  ;  but  the  teacher  who  attempts 
to  train  his  students  in  pruning  gTapes  or  raspberries,  or  to 
teach  the  methods  of  fruit  bearing  in  these  or  other  fruits,  with- 
out taking  them  into  the  plantations,  and  without  giving  them 
an  opportunity  to  perform  the  actual  work,  certainly  has  a  diffi- 
cult task  to  accomplish  and  cannot  hope  to  be  entirely  successful. 

Six  Important  Points. — In  the  writer's  experience  in  han- 
dling practice  work  six  points  stand  out  as  especially  important. 
These  are : 

1.  Timely  Exercises. — Have  the  exercises  timely ;  have  them 
fit  into  the  plan  of  the  course  and  the  season  of  the  year.  This 
is  by  far  the  most  difficult  condition  to  meet;  in  fact,  it  cannot 
be  met.  Any  solution  of  the  matter  will  be  a  compromise,  and 
frequently  a  rather  disappointing  compromise.  But  the  teacher 
ought  to  give  to  it  all  the  time  and  brains  and  initiative  that  he 
has  at  his  command. 

Take,  for  example,  the  practical  work  which  might  be  given 
for  a  course  on  raspberry  growing.  The  logical  way  to  develop 
such  a  course  would  be  to  start  with  the  propagation  of  the  rasp- 
berry, and  go  on  through  the  establishing  and  care  of  the  plan- 
tation, and  end  with  the  picking  and  marketing  of  the  fruit.  If 
one  wishes  to  give  ten  kinds  of  practice  work  with  such  a  course, 
354 


HAVE  ENOUGH  PRACTICE  355 

the  subject  of  the  exercise  and  the  date  at  which  it  ought  to  be 
given  would  be  about  as  follows : 

Raspberry  Culture 

Exercise  Date 

1.  Propagation: 

a.  Root  cuttings    November 

h.  Rooted  tips   August 

2.  Preparing  land  and  laying  out  bed .  .  .  April 

3.  Setting  the  plants    April  or  May 

4.  Culture    May,  June  and  July 

f).  Fertilizing     May 

().  Cutting  back  or  topping  the  canes.  .  .  .June 

7.  Pruning     March 

8.  Trellis  and  training   April 

9.  Removing  old  canes   August 

10.  Picking  and  marketing   July 

If  we  examine  the  left  hand  column  of  the  table  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plan  seems  to  be  fairly  rational,  but  the  right  hand 
column  has  absolutely  no  continuity.  The  only  thing  for  the 
instructor  to  do  under  these  conditions  is  to  make  his  laboratory 
work  as  timely  as  possible  and  let  it  go  at  that;  some  of  the 
exercises  will  have  to  be  omitted ;  others  will  have  to  be  given 
out  of  their  natural  order;  a  few  will  fit  in  where  they 
really  belong. 

2.  Have  Enough  Practice. — The  second  important  point  in 
fruit  practice  work  is  to  have  an  abundance  of  work  to  do.  This, 
of  course,  is  merely  a  question  of  having  large  enough  planta- 
tions to  accommodate  the  classes  which  must  be  taught.  But 
frequently  this  is  by  no  means  a  simple  matter,  and  very  often 
it  is  entirely  out  of  the  question.  When  it  is  at  all  possible, 
however,  the  instructor  should  have  a  sufficiently  large  planta- 
tion at  his  command  so  that  each  student  may  do  enough  of  each 
type  of  work  to  at  least  become  aware  of  some  of  the  problems 
he  will  have  to  meet  and  decide.  If  it  is  a  question  of  pruning 
grapes  on  the  four-cane  Knifiin  system  he  ought  to  piime  enough 
vines  so  that  he  becomes  reasonably  expert  in  the  work  and  so 
that  he  realizes  that  no  two  vines  are  exactly  alike,  and  no 


356  FIELD  AND  LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

single  vine  looks  exactly  like  the  diagram  he  has  seen  in  his 
text-book  or  on  the  blackboard.  The  importance  of  this  point 
can  hardly  be  overemphasized. 

3.  Each  Student  Assigned  His  Project. — The  third  point  in 
making  the  work  satisfactory  is  to  secure  the  right  attitude  on 
the  part  of  the  students.  Usually  this  is  not  at  all  difficult  if 
the  instructor  understands  his  subject  and  his  students,  but  it  is 
a  crucial  point,  and  ought  to  be  given  the  most  careful  considera- 
tion. One  thing  is  absolutely  essential  to  success  on  this  point 
and  that  is  to  have  the  work  so  arranged  that  each  student  is 
definitely  responsible  for  a  certain  part  of  it,  for  so  many  grape 
vines,  or  a  definite  length  of  raspberry  or  strawberiy  row.  He 
conducts  it  as  his  own  project.  This  is  not  saying  that  the 
average  student  is  a  shirk,  but  he  takes  more  interest  and  pride 
in  the  work  if  he  knows  that  he  is  to  get  the  credit  for  good 
work,  as  well  as  the  blame  for  poor  work.  Where  no  definite 
assignment  of  work  is  made  it  is  impossible  to  locate  the  respon- 
sibility for  either  good  or  bad  work.  Moreover,  if  several  types 
of  work  are  to  be  done  on  the  same  plantation,  each  student 
ought  to  have  the  same  section  assigned  to  him  for  all  of  these 
different  operations.  For  example,  he  ought  to  prune  and  tie  up 
the  same  section  in  the  vineyard,  otherwise  he  may  blame  the 
other  fellow  for  all  the  troubles  he  encounters  in  doing  the  tying. 

4.  Planning  in  Advance. — The  fourth  point  in  making  lab- 
oratory work  what  it  should  be  is  to  have  it  conducted  in  an 
orderly,  practical  and  systematic  manner.  The  instructor  must, 
of  course,  know  exactly  how  to  do  the  work  in  hand — that  goes 
without  saying ;  but,  in  addition,  he  must  plan  out  each  exercise 
beforehand  ;  for  doing  the  work  he  must  have  modern  apparatus 
such  as  is  used  on  commercial  plantations;  and  he  must  fur- 
nish the  student  with  clear  and  concise  yet  explicit  directions  as 
to  just  what  he  is  to  do  and  not  to  do.  In  taking  up  any  new 
piece  of  laboratory  work  it  is  very  desirable  to  go  over  the  whole 
process  beforehand,  just  as  will  be  done  in  the  class,  to  make 
sure  that  there  will  be  no  hitches  in  the  progi'am.  And,  no 
matter  how  often  the  exercise  may  have  been  done  in  previous 
years,  it  is  always  desirable  to  check  over  the  "  order  of  exer- 


QUESTIONING  ON  PROJECTS  AND  EXERCISES  357 

cises  "  and  see  that  each  piece  of  apparatus  is  on  hand  and  ready 
for  use.  No  good  teacher  will  omit  this  any  more  than  he 
would  omit  preparing  his  lesson  before  going  into  class,  no  mat- 
ter how  often  that  same  lesson  might  have  been  presented  in 
the  past. 

5.  Proper  Use  of  Note  Books, — The  fifth  point  in  laboratory 
work  is  to  insist  that  each  student  give  a  full  write-up  in  his 
note  book  of  each  exercise.  This  should  be  headed  in  his  note 
book  by  the  directions  which  have  been  given  him  by  the  in- 
structor for  the  work,  which  should  be  followed  by  comments 
on  the  exercise  as  he  has  been  able  to  carry  it  out.  It  is  usually 
diificult  to  have  these  notes  written  up  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
as  most  students  will  persist  in  merely  giving  back  to  the  in- 
structor what  they  have  received  from  him.  But  any  student 
is  sure  to  be  greatly  helped  if  he  sits  down  and  records  carefully 
his  experiences  and  how  they  have  varied  from  what  might  have 
been  expected  from  the  directions  he  received. 

To  carry  out  this  point  satisfactorily  requires  very  frequent 
inspection  of  the  note  books  by  the  instructor,  and  is  sometliiug 
that  it  is  very  easy  to  neglect,  but  it  is  a  crucial  matter  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  secured. 

6.  Questioning  on  Projects  and  Exercises. — The  sixth  and 
last  point  is  to  have  a  full  discussion  of  each  practical  exercise  at 
the  session  of  the  class  next  following.  The  value  of  this  needs 
no  emphasis.  The  instructor  should  have  definite  questions  in 
mind  which  he  hoped  and  expected  that  the  exercise  would  clear 
up  for  the  student,  and  he  should  find  out  whether  they  have 
been  cleared  up  or  are  still  hazy. 

Turning  now  from  a  discussion  of  laboratory  work  in  general 
to  a  few  specific  examples  of  exercises  which  are  likely  to  prove 
of  value,  the  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  type  of  work. 
Each  of  the  four  exercises  is  supposed  to  occupy  at  least  the 
time  of  one  laboratory  period,  and  the  list  given  constitutes  the 
directions  given  to  each  student.  These  directions  may  be  dic- 
tated to  tbe  class  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  or,  better  still, 
furnished  in  the  form  of  a  syllabus. 


358  FIELD  AND  LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Digging  and  Setting  Strawberry  Plants. 

A.  Digging  the  Plants. 

1.  Take  up  50  plants  and  shake  the  soil  from  the  roots. 

2.  Remove   all  plants  from  the  row  and  discard  all  but  strong 

one-year  plants.  Notice  the  difference  between  one-year 
and  two-year  plants. 

3.  Remove  all  but  two  leaves  from  ten  of  the  plants. 

4.  Bunch  plants  together  and  tie. 

5.  Trim  the  roots  back  to  three  inches. 

C.  Take  up  50  plants  with  soil  attached  and  place  in  boxes  or  trnys. 
7.  Remove  blossom  buds  from  all  plants. 

B.  Setting  the  Plants. 

1.  Dig  holes  for  plants  with  hand,  trowel  or  hoe. 

2.  In  setting  plants  loithout  soil  attached,  spread  the  roots  out  fan- 

shaped  and  place  in  the  hole.  Draw  tlie  soil  over  the  roots 
and  press  it  very  firmly  about  them. 

3.  Have  crown  of  plant  just  at  surface  of  ground,  neither  too  high 

nor  too  low.     Tliis  is  very  important! 

4.  Press  the  soil  down  about  the  plant  so  firmly  that  it  cannot  be 

pulled  up  without  exerting  considerable  force.     Test  this! 

5.  In  setting  plants  with  "sod"  of  soil  open  a  hole  that  is  ample 

to  receive  the  plant,  place  the  "  sod "  in  the  hole,  and 
then  pack  the  soil  very  firmly  about  it.  Have  soil  in  bottom 
of  hole  mellow,  and  be  siire  there  are  no  air-spaces  left 
under  plant. 

6.  In  all  cases  leave  the  soil  well  broken  up  on  the  surface  to  pre- 

vent evaporation  of  soil  moisture. 

7.  Be  very  careful  about  mixing  varieties. 

8.  Each  student  will   set  fifty  plants  in   the  matted-row  system 

and  fifty  plants  in  hills. 
?^ote — This  exercise  is  designed  for  use  where  a  "propagation  bed"  is 
available.     In  case  the  plants  are  taken  from  the  fruiting  bed,  No.  2  under 
"  Digging  the  plants  "  will  of  course  have  to  be  modified. 

II.  Pruning  Raspberries  and  Blackberries. 

1.  Keep  in  mind  the  method  of  bearing  fruit  with  these  plants; 

on  short  shoots  from  buds  on  last  year's  wowl. 

2.  Pruning  consists  of  three  steps : 

a.  Heading  back  canes  during  their  first  season's  growth  at 
the  height  desired.  Done  when  canes  reach  a  few  inches 
above  that  height,  usually  in  June. 


PRUNING  YOUNG  GRAPE  VINES  359 

h.  Heading  in  laterals,  removing  weak  canes  and  heading  back 
canes  that  were  not  topped  in  June.  Done  before  beds 
start,  usually  in  March  or  April. 

c.  Removing  old  canes  after  they  have  borne  fruit.  Done  at  any 
time  from  the  time  picking  is  finished  up  to  the  fol- 
lowing si)ring. 

3.  Directions  for  pruning  under  sub-section   (2a)   above. 

a.  Use  a  liglit  pair  of  shears  or  the  thumb  and  finger. 

b.  Pinch  or  clip  cane  at  the  desired  height,  which  is  usually 

about  three  feet. 

c.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  do  this  at  just  the  right  time, 

otherwise  growth  of  cane  is  wasted  and  the  labor  increased. 

4.  Directions  for  sub-section   (26)   above. 

a.  Use  an  ordinary  pair  of  pruning  shears  such  as  is  shown  in 

Fig.  105. 
6.  Take  out  all  weak  canes. 

c.  Take   out   old   and   dead    canes   where   this   has    not    been 

done  previously. 

d.  Thin  the  remaining  canes  to  not  over  five  per  hill  or  crown. 

e.  Cut  back  the  canes  saved  to  good  live  wood. 

f.  Shorten  the  lateral  shoots  to  12  to  15  inches. 

g.  Keep  the  crowns  as  compact  as  possible  by  removing  the  out- 

lying canes. 
2iote — These  directions  are  for  raspberries  in  hills.     Other  systems  will 
of  course  necessitate  some  modifications. 

5.  Directions   for  pruning  under  sub-section    (2c)    above. 

a.  For  this  work  use  a  pair  of  long  handled  shears  (such  as  is 
sliown  in  Fig.  99)  or  a  hook  (such  as  shown  in  Fig.  114). 
6.  kemove  all  the  old  canes  that  have  fruited. 

c.  Cut  them  off  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible. 

d.  Be  careful  to  damage  the  young  canes  as  little  as  possible, 
c.  In  case  the  hook  is  used  for  the  work,  have  the  edge  very 

sharp,  so  that  it  will  not  require  a  very  vigorous  pull  to 
cut  the  canes,  otherwise  the  roots  will  be  disturbed. 

III.  Pruning  Young  Grape  Vines. 

A.  Vines  one  year  set. 

1.  Prune  back  to  two  buds,  preferably  on  one  cane,  and  that  the 
lowest  strong  cane. 

B.  Vines  two  years  set. 

1.  Prune  weak  vines  same  as  one-year  vines. 

2.  Prune  strong  vines  to  one  cane  three  or  four  feet  long. 

C.  Vines  three  years  set. 


360  FIELD  AND  LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  For  Four-cane  Kniffin  System. 

a.  Save  only  the  best  long  cane  tliat  is  nearest  the  ground. 

b.  Remove  all  laterals  from  it  and  cut  it  long  enough  to  reach 

to  the  upper  wire,  SYz  ft.,  and  along  this  wire  2^^  ft. — 8  ft. 
in  all. 
o.  In  case  a  good  T  can  be  formed  at  about  5%  ft.  from  the 
ground,  retain  both  branches  and  plan  to  form  the  per- 
manent head  of  the  vine. 
2k'0te — For  other  systems  of  training  the  directions  for  pruning  three- 
year  vines  will  be  similar  except  for  slight  modifications  due  to  the  system. 
It  is  not  possible,  of  course,  to  always  have  available  a  supply  of  one,  two 
and  three-year-old  grape  vines,  but  by  making)  small  additions  to  the  vine- 
yard each  year  a  good  range  of  vines  of  different  ages  can  be  maintained. 

IV.  Pruning  Bearing  Grape  Vines  in  the  Four-Cane  Kniffin  System. 

1.  Prune  back  each  side  of  the  vine,  on  each  wire,  to  the  first 

strong  cane. 

2.  Cut   back   the   canes   saved   to   about   five   buds   each    on   the 

lower  wire  and   ten   buds   on   the   upper  wire,   cutting  one- 
half  inch  beyond  the  last  bud  saved. 

3.  If  weak  canes  are  removed  near  the  trunk,  save  one  bud  at  the 

base  of  each  to  grow  a  cane  for  possible  use  next  year. 

4.  Where  no  strong  cane  can  be  had,  spur  prune  on  the  old  arm. 

5.  Where  the  vine  has  two  trunks  get  rid  of  one  of  them  if  possible. 
G.  If  trunk  is  very  old  and  crooked  renew  it  if  possible  from  a. 

good  cane  which  grew  the  previous  year  from  near  the  ground. 
Xote — ^Similar  directions  can  easily  be  given  for  all  the  other  systems 
of  training  grapes  with  such  slight  modifications  as  may  be  made  necessary 
by  the  difference  in  the  systems. 

Other  Practice  Work. — The  above  are  merely  suggestions  as 
to  laboratory  and  field  exercises  and  projects.  Many  others  will 
occur  to  the  instructor  who  has  had  any  experience  at  all  in 
handling  such  work.  Such  practice  should  be  repeated,  if  pos- 
sible, until  students  show  some  skill  in  operations. 

The  list  of  exercises  given  under  the  imaginary  course  in 
raspberry  culture,  page  345,  vdll,  any  one  of  them,  furnish 
work  for  one  or  more  laboratory  periods. 

For  pupils  that  can  do  so,  home  projects  in  small  fruit- 
growing should  be  outlined.  These  may  nm  a  season  or  more 
and  may  cover  the  vacation  period. 

Practice  in  spraying  for  insects  and   diseases,   mulching, 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  METHODS  361 

renovation  of  old  plantations,  plant  selection,  systems  of  prim- 
ing, harvesting,  sorting,  packing,  marketing,  and  using  of  prod- 
ucts— all  these  and  many  other  fmit  operations  will  form  a 
basis  for  valuable  practice. 

Improvement  of  Methods. — The  instructor  will  find  it  of 
great  value  to  sit  do\\ai  at  his  desk  at  once  after  a  laboratory  exer- 
cise has  been  given  and  consider  whether  improvements  can  be 
made  in  the  plans  or  directions  for  the  exercise  the  next  time 
it  is  given. 


PROPSmr  UBRAKT 

li  C.  StaU  aihge 


INDEX 


Acid  phosphate,  23 
Acme  harrow,  11 
Advertising,  50 
Air  drainage,  2 
Ammonium  sulfate,  23 
Anthracnose  of  currants  and  goose- 
berries, 263 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  205 

grape,  343 
Aphis  of  currants  and   gooseberries, 

259 
Arsenate  of  lead,  39 

lime,  40 
Ashes,  wood,  25 
Atmospheric  drainage,  2 

for  blackberries  and  raspberries, 
160 
Auto  truck,  19 

Barley  as  a  cover  crop,  34 
Barn  manure,  24 

for  strawberries,  106 
Barrel  sprayer,  43 
Basic  slag,  24 
Baskets  and  crates  for  currants  and 

gooseberries,  267 
Beans  as  companion  crops,  30 
Beets  as  companion  crops,  31 
Berry  moth  of  grape,  339 
Bird's  eye  rot  of  grapes,  343 
Blackberries,  botany  of,  163 

boxes  and  crates  for,  217 

canning  and  preserving,  221 

cultivation  of,  173 

drying,  218 

fertilizing,  173,  177 

marketing,  216 

propagating,  165 

systems  of  training,  192 

varieties  of,  163 
Blackberry,  anthracnose,  205 

cane  blight  or  wilt,  206 

cane  borer,  202 

crown  borer,  203 

crown  gall,  208 

diseases,  202 

orange  rust,  206 

sawfly,  204 

soils,  159 

yields,  222 


Black  raspberries,  botany  of,  164 

Black  rot  of  grapes,  340 

Blossoms,  removing  strawberry,  114 
sex  of  strawberry,  65 

Bone  meal,  24 

Bordeaux  mixture,  42 

Borers  of  currant  and  gooseberry,  259 

Boxes  for  raspberries  and  blackber- 
ries, 217 

Brush  harrow,  12 

Bucket  pump,  42 

Buckwheat  as  a  cover  crop,  34 

Bunch  of  grapes,  283 

Burning  of  strawberry  bed,  136 

Cabbages  as  companion  crop,  31 
Cane   blight  of  currants  and  goose- 
berries, 263 
raspberries  and  blackberries,  206 
borer    of,    raspberries    and    black- 
berries, 202 
Canned  raspberries,  52 
Canning  raspberries  and  blackberries, 

221 
Carriers  for  berries,  146 
Clay  soil,  5 

Climax  grape  basket,  347 
Clod  crusher,  13 
Clover  as  a  cover  crop,  35 
Color  of  strawberries,  67 
Color  in  grapes,  282 
Companion  crops,  27 
in  vineyards,  303 
Concord  grape,  283 
Cost  of  renovating  strawberry  bed, 

143 
Cover  crops,  32 
benefits  of,  32 

for  currants  and  gooseberries,  244 
raspberries  and  blackberries,  176 
in  vineyards,  305 
Crates    for    blackberries    and    rasp- 
berries, 217 
strawberries,  153 
Crown  borer  of  raspberries,  203 
Crown  gall  of  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, 208 
Cultivation,  ^ 

Cultivating  in  dry  weather,  100 
strawberries,  94 

363 


364 


INDEX 


Currant  anthracnose.  263 

aphis,  259 

borers,  259 

cane  bliglit,  203 

jelly,  52,  268 

leaf  spot,  262 

maggots,  260 

mildew,  261 

varieties,  232 
Currants,  baskets  and  crates  for,  267 

cover  crops  for,  244 

cultivating  and  fertilizing,  242 

diseases  and  insects  of,  257 

distances  for  setting,  237 

duration  of  plantations,  245 

harvesting  and  marketing,  265 

mulching,  244 

picking,  265 

propagation  of,  233 

pruning  and  training,  248 

sites  and  soils  for,  227 

uses  for,  268 
Cuttings  of  gooseberries  and  currants, 
235 

grapes,  292 
Cyanamid,  23 

Date   of  applying   mulch   to   straw- 
berries, 130 

Dewberries,  botany  of,  163 

Digging  strawberry  plants,  74 

Disease  resistance  in  strawberries,  68 
of  strawberries,  121 
currants  and  gooseberries,  257 
raspberries  and  blackberries,  202 

Disk  harrow,  9 

Distances    for    currants    and    goose- 
berries, 237 
grapes,  298 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  166 
strawberry  plants,  82 
runners,  112 

Downey  mildew  of  grape,  342 

Drainage  of  water,  6 
air,  2 

Drying  raspberries  and  blackberries, 
218 

Dust  mulch  in  strawberries,  99 

Dwarf  rape  as  a  cover  crop,  35 

European  grapes,  279 
Experimental  plot  of  strawberries,  70 
Exposure  for  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, 160 

or  slope,  1 

to  winds,  3 


Fertilize,  Shall  we?  20 
Fertilizer,  applying,  25 

elements  needed,  20 

sowers,  16 
FertiHzers,  20 

for  strawberries,  102 
Fertilizing  currants  and  gooseberries, 
246 

grapes,  307 

old  strawberry  beds,  138 

raspberries  and  blackberries,   173, 
177 

the  vineyard,  307 
Firmness  of  flesh  in  strawberries,  67 
Food  value  of  fruits,  53 
Four-cane  kniffin  system  in  grapes, 

320 
Frosts  and  strawberries,  58 

strawberry  mulch,  125 
Fruit  as  food,  53 
Fruit  products,  51 

Fungous    diseases    of    currants    and 
gooseberries,  257 
the  strawberry,  121 
raspberries  and  blackberries,  202 

Gang  plow,  8 
Gluts  in  markets,  49 
Gooseberries,  baskets  and  crates  for, 
267 

cover  crops  for,  244 

cultivation  of,  242 

diseases  and  insects,  257 

distances  for  planting,  237 

duration  of  plantations,  245 

fertilizers  for,  242 

harvesting  and  marketing,  205 

mulching,  244 

picking,  266 

propagation  of,  233 

pruning  and  training,  248 

sites  and  soils  for,  227 

uses  for,  269 
Gooseberry  anthracnose,  263 

aphis,  259 

borers,  259 

cane  blight,  263 

leaf  spot,  262 

mildew,  261 

varieties,  232 
Grading  fruit,  47 

strawberries,  152 
Grafting  grapes,  296 
Grape  anthracnose,  343 

birds-eye  rot,  343 

berry  moth,  339 


INDEX 


365 


Grape,  black  rot,  340 

butter,  52 

chafer,  337 

climax  basket,  347 

cuttings,  292 
single-eye,  295 

diseases,  340 

downey  mildew,  342 

grafting,  296 

hoe,  15 

insects,  diseases  and  spraying,  336 

juice,  52 

layers,  295 

leaf -hopper,  338 

necrosis,  344 

phylloxera,  340 

powdery  mildew,  342 

root-worm,  301,  336 

vines,  1-year  and  2-year,  294 
Grapes,  botany  of,  279 

color  of,  282 

distances  for  setting,  298 

fertiUzing,  307 

four-cane  Kniffin  system,  320 

harvesting  and  marketing,  346 

high-renewal  system,  316 

horizontal-arm-spur  system,  320 

Munson  system,  329 

new  varieties,  297 

packing,  350 

picking,  350 

propagation  of,  292 

pruning  and  training,  310 

renewal  pruning,  314 

ripeness  for  picking,  348 

self-sterility  of,  282 

soils  for,  275 

spur  pruning,  314 

temperature  for,  273 

trellis  for,  331 

two-cane  Kniffin  system,  326 

umbrella  system,  326 

varieties  of,  Agawam,  290;  Barry, 
290;  Brighton,  287;  Brilliant, 
290;  Campbell,  289;  California 
varieties,  290;  Catawba,  289; 
Concord,  283;  Delaware,  286; 
Diamond,  290;  Dutchess,  290; 
Ga^rtner,  290;  Goethe,  290;  Green 
Mountain,  290;  Herbert,  290; 
Iowa,  290;  Lady  Washington, 
290,  Lindlay,  290;  Merrimac, 
290;  Moore,  288;  Muscadine, 
290;  Niagara,  286;  Triumph,  290; 
Wilder,  290;  Winchell,  289; 
Worden,  286 


Hand  fertilizer  distributor,  17 

hoes  for  strawberries,  95 
Harrows,  9 
acme,  11 
brush,  12 
disk,  9 
Meeker,  12 
smoothing,  11 
spring-tooth,  10 
Harvester  for  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, 216 
Harvesting  currants  and  gooseberries, 
265 
grapes,  346 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  209 
strawberries,  144 
Hay  for  mulch,  129 
Heading  back  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, 187 
Hedge  row,  in  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, 168 
setting  runners.  111 
system,  79 
High-renewal      system     in     pruning 

grapes,  316 
Hill  system,  cultivating,  95 

in  raspberries  and  blackberries, 

167 
strawberries,  78 
Hoes,  16 

Holes  for  strawberry  plants,  88 
Horizontal    Arm     Spur    system    in 

grapes,  320 
Horse-drawn  fertilizer  sower,  16 
Humus  for  raspberries  and  blackber- 
ries, 162 
from  cover  crops,  32 
in  soil,  6 

Implements,  8 

for  cultivating  strawberries,  94 

Intercrops  for  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, 176 

Irrigation  of  strawberries,  115 

Insects  of  currants  and  gooseberries, 
257 
grapes,  336 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  202 
strawberries,  121 

Jelly,  currant,  52 

Keeping  quality  of  grapes,  282 
Knapsack  sprayer,  43 

Labels  for  strawberries,  155 
Laboratory  exercises,  354 


366 


INDEX 


Layers  in  grapes,  295 

currants  and  gooseberries,  235 
Leaf  hopper  of  grape,  338 

roller  of  strawberry,  118 

spot  of  currant  and  gooseberry,  262 
strawberry,  122 
Lime  for  strawberries,  103 

uses  of,  24 
Lime-sulfur,  41 
Linear    sj-stems    in    raspberries    and 

blackberries,  168 
Low  grade,  fruits,  48 

Machinery  for  planting,  93 
Manufactured  fruit  products,  51 
Manure,  barn,  24 
Market  early,  49 

regularly,  49 
Marketing,  46 

currants  and  gooseberries,  265 

grapes,  346 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  216 

strawberries,  144 
Marking  off  strawberry  bed,  83 
Matted  row  system  in  strawberries, 

81 
Meeker  harrow,  12 
Mildew  of  currants  and  gooseberries, 
261 

downey  of  grape,  342 

powdery  of  grape,  342 
Mowing  strawberry  bed,  136 
Mulch,  date  of  applying,  130 

hay,  129 

how  to  apply,  131 

materials  for,  128 

removing,  133 
Mulching  strawberries,  125 
Munson  system   of   training  grapes, 

329 
Muscadine  grape,  281 
training  of,  335 
varieties  of,  290 

Necrosis  of  grape,  344 
Nematodes  of  straw-berry,  121 
New  varieties  of  strawberry,  72 
Nicotine,  41 
Nitrate  of  lime,  23 

soda,  22 
Nitrogen,  effects  of,  21 

for  strawberries,  104 

from  cover  crops,  33 
Number  of  plants,  strawberry,  82 

Old  canes,  removing,  190 


Orange  rust  of  raspberries  and  black- 
berries, 206 

Packing  fruit,  48 

grapes,  350 

shed,  150 
Pedigree  strawberry  plants,  76 
Phosphoric  acid,  23 

for  strawberries,  105 
Phylloxera  of  grape,  340 
Pickers  for  strawberries,  145 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  212 

rules  for,  148 
Picking  currants,  265 

gooseberries,  266 

grapes,  350 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  209 

strawberries,  rules  for,  150 
Pine  blister  rust,  264 

needles  for  mulch,  129 
Planker,  13 
Planting  machines,  93 
Plant-making  in  strawberries,  68 
Plows,  8 
Plowing  for  grapes,  297 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  161 
Potash,  forms,  24 

for  strawberries,  106 
Potatoes  as  companion  crops,  31 
Powdery  mildew  of  grapes,  342 

strawberries,  123 
Power  sprayers,  43 
Productiveness  of  strawberries,  67 
Practice  work,  354 
Projects,  354 
Propagation  bed  for  strawberries,  73 

of  currants  and  gooseberries,  233 

grapes,  292 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  165 

strawberries,  72 
Pruning   currants    and   gooseberries, 
248 

grapes,  310 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  182 

tools  for  grapes,  314 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  200 
Purple-cane   raspberries,   botany   of, 

164 

Quality  of  grapes,  281 
strawberries,  67 

Rape,  dwarf  as  a  cover  crop,  35 
Raspberries,  canned,  52 

canning  and  preserving,  221 

culture  of,  173 


INDEX 


367 


Raspberries,  drying,  218 

fertilizing,  173,  177 

harvesting,  209 

marketing,  216 

propagation  of,  165 

systems  of  training,  192 

yields,  222 
Raspberry  anthracnose,  205 

boxes  and  crates,  217 

cane  blight,  206 
borer,  202 

crown  borer,  203 
gall,  208 

diseases  and  insects,  202 

orange  rust,  206 

sau'fly,  204 

soils,  159 
Red  raspberries,  botany  of,  164 

spiders,  204 
Refrigeration  for  strawberries,  155 
Removing  blossoms  in  strawberries, 

114 
Renewal  pruning  of  grapes,  314 
Renovating  old  strawberry  beds,  136, 

143 
Ripeness,  degree  of  in  strawberries, 

147 
Ripening,  season  of  in  strawberries,  66 
River  grapes,  280 
Rolling  cutters  for  removing  runners, 

113 
Root  cuttings,  165 

louse  of  strawberry,  120 

worm  of  grape,  336 
Rose  chafer,  337 
Rotation  in  strawberry  beds,  59 
Runners,  removing,  110 

strawberry,  110 
Rust  of  raspberry  and  blackberry,  206 
Rye  as  a  cover  crop,  34 

Sandy  soils,  4 

San  Jos^  scale,  25 

Sawfly,  raspberry,  204 

Season  of  ripening  in  strawberries,  68 

Selection  of  sites,  1 

Self-sterility  in  grapes,  282 

Setting  raspberries  and  blackberries, 

171 
Setting  strawberry  bed,  78 

plants,  90 
Sex  of  strawberry  blossoms,  65 
Shelling  of  grapes,  282 
Single-eye  cuttings,  235,  295 
Sites  for  currants  and  gooseberries, 

227 


Sites  for  raspberries  and  blackberries, 
159 

selection  of,  1 

for  vineyards,  273 
Size  of  fruit  in  strawberries,  67 
Slope  or  exposure  of  site,  1 
Soil  adaptation  in  strawberries,  71 

preparation  of  for  strawberries,  63 

types,  4 
Soils,  clay,  5 

for  grapes,  275 

raspberries  and  blackberries,  159 
Smoothing  harrow,  11 
Spade  method  of  setting,  92 
Spraying  materials  and  apparatus,  39 
Spring  culture  of  strawberry  beds,  101 
Spring-tooth  harrow,  10 
Spur  pruning  of  grapes,  314 
Strawberries,  culture  of,  94 

distance  for  plants,  82 

fertilizers  for,  102 

fertilizer  formulas,  107 

harvesting,  144 

lime  for,  104 

marketing,  144 

number  of  plants,  82 

phosphoric  acid  for,  105 

potash  for,  106 

propagation  of,  72 

white  grub  of,  116 
Strawberry  blossoms,  65 

diseases,  121 

leaf  roller,  118 
spot,  122 

nematodes,  121 

plants,  72 
digging,  74 

powdery  mildew,  123 

root  louse,  120 

soils,  57 

sprayers,  44 

varieties,  65 

weevil,  119 
Straw  for  mulch,  129 
Sulfate  of  ammonia,  23 
Summer  grape,  280 
Sweet  corn  as  a  companion  crop,  31 

Tankage,  23 
Temperature  of  soils,  5 
Tip-layering  in  raspberries,  166 
Training,   systems   of   in  raspberries 

and  blackberries,  190 
Tray  for  strawberries,  155 
Trellis  for  grapes,  331 
Trowels,  88 


368 


INDEX 


Truck,  auto,  19 

Two-cane  Kniffin  System,  326 

Umbrella  system  of  grape  training, 
326 

Varieties  of  blackberries,  163 

currants,  232 

dewberries,  163 

gooseberries,  232 

grapes,  283-290 

raspberries,  164,  165 

strawberries,  65 

new,  grapes,  297 
strawberries,  72 
Vineyard  and  winds,  274 

companion  crops  in,  303 

cover  crops  in,  305 

exposure  for,  274 

fertilizing,  287 

plowing,  297,  301 

sites,  273 


Vineyard,  soils  for,  275 

tillage  of,  302 
Vitis  aestivalis,  280 

Bourquiniana,  280 

Lincecumii,  280 

labrusca,  279 

riparia,  280 

rotundifolia,  281 

vinifera,  279 

Washing  of  soils,  32 

Water  drainage,  6 

Weeds  as  cover  crop,  35 

Weevil,  strawberry,  119 

White  grub  of  strawberry,  116 

Windbreaks,  3 

Winds,  3 

Wire  for  trellis,  332 

Wood  ashes, ^ 

Yields  of  raspoerries  and  blackber- 
ries, 222 


